Tall Oil Research Articles

The Effect of Duration of Amidation of Fatty Acids with Diethanolamine on the Surfactant Properties

AbstractThe effects of the duration of direct amidation of fatty acids (FA) with diethanolamine on the composition of the products obtained, their surface‐active properties, and ability to stabilize water‐in‐oil emulsions are studied using the example of tall oil distillate. A certain range of synthesis time that corresponds to the maximum content of diethanolamides in the reaction products, and, as a consequence, the highest surface‐active and emulsifying properties of the products is shown to exist. An increase in the synthesis duration time leads to a deterioration of these properties due to accumulation of the products of secondary reactions. A new mechanism of the amidation process that includes secondary transformations of diethanolamine and its condensation products with FA into 1,4‐bis(2‐hydroxyethyl)piperazine derivatives is proposed. The structures of by‐products are confirmed using high‐performance liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS), infrared (IR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy methods. It is concluded that the acid value of the product as well as the amount of water released during the synthesis cannot serve as a reliable criterion for completion of the process.

Utilization of different tall oils for improving the water resistance of cellulosic fibers

ABSTRACTThis study was conducted to assess the effect of the pulping by‐products crude tall oil (CTO), distilled tall oil (DTO), and tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) on dynamic water vapor sorption behavior, interfiber strength, and thermal stability of cellulosic paper‐sheets. The results were compared against those obtained in cellulose papers treated with the conventional petroleum‐derived hydrophobic agent hydrowax and in untreated ones. The tall oil treatments caused strong reduction in equilibrium moisture content of the paper‐sheets during adsorption and desorption runs. The same trend was noticed for the hydrowax‐treated papers, however, it was less pronounced than the CTO‐treated and DTO‐treated samples in the relative humidity range of 75–95%. The sorption hysteresis was considerably decreased after the treatments. The ultimate dry‐tensile strengths of the paper‐sheets were significantly reduced by TOFA and hydrowax treatments, while CTO and DTO showed comparable strength as that of untreated control. The ultimate wet‐strengths of the paper‐sheets were improved after the treatments. The thermal stability of the specimens was improved by the tall oil treatments, and the hydrowax‐treated samples illustrated lower degradation temperature than the untreated control. The results are promising for the use of tall oils as alternative hydrophobic agents of cellulosic fiber‐based products, such as wood panels and paper packaging. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 47303.

Preparation and characterization of microcapsules based self-healing coatings containing epoxy ester as healing agent

Cracks caused by chemicals or mechanical forces would damage the performance of coatings leading to the coating failure. Microcapsules based self-healing smart coatings can provide automatic recovery and extend the durability of coatings. In this study, poly urea-formaldehyde microcapsules contained tall oil fatty acid based-epoxy ester as core materials were synthesized through in situ polymerization. The synthesized microcapsules were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), optical microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The core content of microcapsules was 67 wt. %; the average diameter of microcapsules was 101 ± 48 μm. The self-healing coatings were prepared by embedding the poly(urea-formaldehyde)-epoxy ester (PUF-epoxy ester) microcapsules into epoxy coatings. Salt spray, SEM, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were examined, and the self-healing coatings exhibited satisfactory self-healing property and sufficient corrosion resistance recovery.

Tall Oil Rosin: A Substitute for Gum Rosin in Development of Offset Printing Ink

Tall Oil Rosin: A Substitute for Gum Rosin in Development of Offset Printing Ink

Effect of primary driers on oxidative drying of high-solid alkyd binder: Investigation of thickness effects by mechanical tests and infrared spectroscopy

Catalytic activity of four primary driers was investigated in high-solid alkyd binder modified with tall oil fatty acids. The drying activity was established by mechanical tests. Infrared spectroscopy was used for detailed investigation of chemical changes during the autoxidation process. Due to strong thickness effect, the infrared study was performed using attenuated total reflectance (ATR) technique, which measures spectra of a thin layer from the interface sample/ATR crystal (down surface of the sample). Coatings of 30 μm-wet thickness were found to be enough thin to be considered as a homogenously dried bulk with negligible effect of oxygen diffusion. It makes the 30 μm-layers very suitable for determination of kinetic parameters of the autoxidation process. For the first time, ATR-IR experiments on several samples of the same composition but different film thickness were used for detailed investigation of the thickness effect.Two well-distinguished modes of film-formation were observed in studied drier/binder systems. Front front-forming drying occurs when the autoxidation is fast and air-oxygen diffusion is slower than its consumption. In extreme case, the film-formation process is practically ceased because impermeable skin is formed and the coating is not through-dried for very long time. The second mode, homogenous drying, is observed when autoxidation is slow and oxygen consumption is not fast enough to establish oxygen gradient in the coating.

Recycling Waste Polyester via Modification with a Renewable Fatty Acid for Enhanced Processability.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste often contains a large amount of thermally unstable contaminants and additives that negatively impacts processing. A reduced processing temperature is desired. In this work, we report using a renewably sourced tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) as a modifier for recycled PET. To that end, PET was compounded with TOFA at different concentrations and extruded at 240 °C. Phase transition behaviors characterized by thermal and dynamic mechanical analyses exhibit shifts in the melting and recrystallization temperatures of PET to lower temperatures and depression of glass transition temperature from 91 to 65 °C. Addition of TOFA also creates crystal-phase imperfection that slows recrystallization, an important processing parameter. Changes in the morphology of plasticized PET reduces and stabilizes the melt viscosity at 240 and 250 °C. Melt-spun, undrawn continuous filaments of diameter 36–46 μm made from these low-melting PET exhibit 29–38 MPa tensile strength, 2.7–2.8 GPa tensile modulus, and 20–36% elongation. These results suggest a potential path for reusing waste PET as high-performance polymeric fibers.

Current and Potential Biofuel Production from Plant Oils

Environmental concerns and depletion of fossil fuels along with government policies have led to the search for alternative fuels from various renewable and sustainable feedstocks. This review provides a critical overview of the chemical composition of common commercial plant oils, i.e., palm oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, castor oil, WCO, and CTO and their recent trends toward potential biofuel production. Plant oils with a high energy content are primarily composed of triglycerides (generally > 95%), accompanied by diglycerides, monoglycerides, and free fatty acids. The heat content of plant oils is close to 90% for diesel fuels. The oxygen content is the most important difference in chemical composition between fossil oils and plant oils. Triglycerides can even be used directly in diesel engines. However, their high viscosity, low volatility, and poor cold flow properties can lead to engine problems. These problems require that plant oils need to be upgraded if they are to be used as a fuel in conventional diesel engines. Biodiesel, biooil, and renewable diesel are the three major biofuels obtained from plant oils. The main constraint associated with the production of biodiesel is the cost and sustainability of the feedstock. The renewable diesel obtained from crude tall oil is more sustainable than biofuels obtained from other feedstocks. The fuel properties of renewable diesel are similar to those of fossil fuels with reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In this review, the chemical composition of common commercial plant oils, i.e., palm oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, castor oil, and tall oil, are presented. Both their major and minor components are discussed. Their compositions and fuel properties are compared to both fossil fuels and biofuels.

Bark Assortments of Scots Pine and Norway Spruce as Industrial Feedstock for Tall Oil Production

Fatty and resin acids in bark residues generated by forest industries can be used to produce high-value green chemicals, but more information about their concentrations in potential sources is required. We examined variations in the content of lipophilic extractives from both pulpwood bark and timber bark of Norway spruce and Scots pine trees growing in homogenous stands in mid-Sweden. We found that spruce pulpwood bark had the highest total amounts of fatty and resin acids (average yield, 0.9 kg/m3 wood). The regression functions, based on readily available tree parameters (age, stem diameter, height, growth rate and inner bark proportions), can be used to predict the concentrations of fatty and resin acids, triglycerides, sterols and steryl esters in bark materials before harvesting stands that supply industrial plants.

Оптимизация промывки сульфатного мыла кислой водой и оценка соответствия качества получаемого таллового масла требованиям стандартов

Оптимизация промывки сульфатного мыла кислой водой и оценка соответствия качества получаемого таллового масла требованиям стандартов

Tall oil fatty acid inclusion in the diet improves performance and increases ileal density of lactobacilli in broiler chickens

ABSTRACT1. Studies were conducted with tall oil fatty acids (TOFA) to determine their effect on broiler chicken performance and ileal microbiota. TOFA, a product originating from coniferous trees and recovered by fractional distillation of side-streams from pulp production, mainly comprises free long-chain fatty acids (~90%) and resin acids (~8%). Conjugated linolenic acids and pinolenic acid are characteristic fatty acid components of TOFA.2. TOFA products at 750 mg/kg feed were tested in two 35-day broiler chicken trials, each using a wheat soya-based diet and with 12 replicate pens per treatment. In both trials, TOFA improved body weight gain at all time points (P < 0.001) and feed conversion efficiency during the first 21 days (P < 0.01). Two different dry TOFA formulations (silica carrier and palm oil coating) were tested and showed performance effects similar to liquid TOFA.3. Ileal digesta of the broiler chickens was analysed for total eubacteria, Lactobacillus spp., Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli and Clostridium perfringens on days 14 and 35. TOFA significantly increased total eubacteria and lactobacilli density on day 14 (P < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between these bacterial groups and broiler body weight on day 14 (P < 0.01).4. A numerical reduction in C. perfringens was observed. In vitro growth inhibition studies showed that C. perfringens was strongly inhibited by 10 mg/l TOFA (P < 0.001), while common lactobacilli were resistant to >250 mg/l. The in vitro results were thus in line with in vivo observations.5. The mechanisms behind the bacterial shifts and their role in performance improvement are unknown. Further purification of TOFA components is needed to identify the effective agents.

Application of Low Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance to evaluate asphalt binder viscosity in recycled mixes

The newly developed method to estimate asphalt viscosity and aging trends using Low Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (LF-NMR) was applied to characterize the effect of incorporating recycled materials and recycling agents in asphalt mix samples. The measurements were conducted on asphalt mix samples prepared with different binders: (1) a virgin binder, (2) a recycled binder from Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP), (3) a blend of virgin and RAP binder (recycled blend) and (4) a rejuvenated blend that consists of the recycled blend with the addition of a recycling agent (tall oil). The LF-NMR measurements were performed at room (25 °C) and magnet (36.4 °C) temperatures. The Relative Hydrogen Index (RHI) obtained from LF-NMR captured the expected binder viscosity trends for the asphalt mix samples prepared with each of the different binders. The viscosity of the binders and blends was estimated from Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) measurements. The relationship between dynamic viscosity and RHI agreed with previous findings. The samples prepared with the rejuvenated blend had lower viscosity and higher RHI than the recycled blend, indicating that the tall oil was effective in lowering its viscosity. Small discrepancies in the trends of the rejuvenated blend as compared to the virgin binder were attributed to their similar detectable hydrogen content, obtained in the rejuvenated blend with the addition of tall oil, but different oxidation state, molecular distribution and steric hindrance. This indicates that the LF-NMR method is more influenced by the chemistry of the asphalt binders rather than their viscosity. The asphalt mix samples with virgin and rejuvenated binders were also subjected to an aging treatment at 70 °C for a month. A significant decrease of the RHI was detected for the samples prepared with rejuvenated binder whereas no significant change was detected for those prepared with virgin binders, which indicates that rejuvenated binders were more susceptible to additional aging that resulted in increased viscosity.

Cleaner production of polyurethane foam: Replacement of conventional raw materials, assessment of fire resistance and environmental impact

Abstract This work presents the results in the field of materials engineering, and they are related to recycling of paper production waste sludge particles at amounts of 10 wt% and 20 wt% in tall oil polyol-based rigid polyurethane foam with and without tris (1-chloro 2-propyl) phosphate flame retardant. The impact of both systems on physical and mechanical properties, thermal stability, fire resistance and ignitability is studied. Paper production waste sludge particles filled rigid polyurethane foams display better fire performance thus resulting into reduction of the emission of CO2 and CO as well as reduction in average heat release rate. Scanning electron microscopy has shown that paper waste sludge particles and tris (1-chloro 2-propyl) phosphate together act systematically, and synergism between two materials may be observed. It is as well determined that paper production waste sludge particles reduce thermal conductivity by approx. 15% for polyurethane foam with paper production waste sludge particles and by approx. 13% for polyurethane foam with paper production waste sludge particles and conventional flame retardant. Moreover, the substitution of tris (1-chloro 2-propyl) phosphate, petroleum based polyol and hydroflurocarbons with 10 wt% and 20 wt% of PPWS particles, tall oil polyol and water reduces carbon dioxide emission by 60.8% and 39.6%, respectively, contributing to cleaner production of rigid polyurethane foam.

Behavior of ring footing resting on reinforced sand subjected to eccentric-inclined loading

Ring footings are suitable for the structures like tall transmission towers, chimneys, silos and oil storages. These types of structures are susceptible to horizontal loads (wind load) in addition to their dead weight. In the literature, very little or no effort has been made to study the effect of ring footing resting on reinforced sand when subjected to eccentric, inclined and/or eccentric-inclined loadings. This paper aims to study the behavior of ring footing resting on loose sand and/or compacted randomly distributed fiber-reinforced sand (RDFS) when subjected to eccentric (0B, 0.05B and 0.1B, where B is the outer diameter of ring footing), inclined (0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, −5°, −10° and −15°) and eccentric-inclined loadings by using a finite element (FE) software PLAXIS 3D. The behavior of ring footing is studied by using a dimensionless factor called reduction factor (RF). The numerical model used in the PLAXIS 3D has been validated by conducting model plate load tests. Moreover, an empirical expression using regression analysis has been presented which will be helpful in plotting a load-settlement curve for the ring footing.

UPM may expand biofuels in Finland

Finnish forestry products firm UPM may build a second advanced biodiesel facility in its home country, part of an effort to make up for falling paper demand in Europe (see page 19). The plant would have annual capacity of 500,000 metric tons. UPM claims its first plant, a 100,000-metric-ton operation, is profitable. It produces biodiesel from crude tall oil, a residue of wood pulp production.

The effect of rosin acid on hydrodeoxygenation of fatty acid

In this study, inhibition of tall oil fatty acid hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) activity due to addition of rosin acid over sulfided NiMo/Al2O3 was investigated. Oleic acid and abietic acid were used as model compounds for fatty acid and rosin acid respectively in tall oil. After completion of each HDO experiment, the NiMo catalysts were recovered and used again under the same conditions. The results showed that the oleic acid HDO activity of sulfided catalysts was inhibited by addition of abietic acid due to competitive adsorption and increased coke deposition. The rate of carbon deposition on the catalysts increased when abietic acid was added to oleic acid feed. Moreover, the coke was in a more advanced form with higher stability for the catalysts exposed to both oleic acid and abietic acid. Furthermore, a clear correlation between the rate of coke formation and concentration of abietic acid was observed.

Characterisation of ureaurethane elastomers containing tall oil based polyols

In the present work, ureaurethane elastomers (EPUUs) were obtained by a one-step method with various isocyanate indices (INCO) from tall oil (TO) polyols used as a chain extender. The aim of this work was to evaluate the impact of TO polyols on the thermal and mechanical properties of the manufactured EPUUs with regard to their industrial applicability. The temperatures of the glass transition and accompanying heat effects were analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The chemical structure and degree of phase separation related to the value of hydrogen bonds were determined by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The thermal degradation was investigated by the combined analysis of TGA/FTIR. The performance as a fire retardant and evaluation of the flammability of EPUUs were tested with a cone calorimeter (CC) and by the limiting oxygen index (LOI). The mechanical properties were tested by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), static tensile strength studies and wear resistance. As concluded from the study, the use of TO-based polyols as a chain extender affects the chemical structure of EPUUs and, consequently, changes the number of hydrogen bonds and degree of phase separation (DPS). Therefore, an introduction of the TO polyols resulted in an improvement of the thermal and mechanical properties of EPUUs. Furthermore, the heat release rate of the developed materials was up-to three times lower in comparison to the reference material.

TREND IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL PALM FRUIT HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES IN MALAYSIA

Harvesting oil palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB) on tall oil palm trees is a laborious and hazardous task. Lately, with the escalating problem of labor shortage, the exigent demand to mechanize the harvesting task cannot be overlooked. Over the years, many harvesting methods and technologies have been used and developed to increase the harvesting productivity. This paper reviews the conventional manual harvesting using manual labor, mechanization of harvesting task using harvesting machines as well as research on climbing robots for harvesting FFB in Malaysia. In essence, it provides an overview of the trend in the development of harvesting technologies in Malaysia. Realizing the potential of climbing robots for harvesting, the morphological structures and physical characteristics of oil palm trunks in its natural surroundings are examined closely to identify the challenges in the climbing and harvesting processes. Next, a set of design criteria is introduced to overcome those challenges. In addition, several mechanisms are proposed which play integral parts in enhancing the climbing and harvesting tasks.

Tall oil, its chemistries and applications

Tall oil, its chemistries and applications

Highly Functional Polyol Synthesis from Epoxidized Tall Oil Fatty Acids

Highly Functional Polyol Synthesis from Epoxidized Tall Oil Fatty Acids

INVESTIGATION OF THE PROCESS OF OBTAINING THE TALL OIL BY LIGNIGN PHASE THERMAL EFFICIEN-CY AND EVALUATING THE CONFORMITY OF ITS QUALITY WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF STANDARD-SETTING DOCUMENTS

The main problem of industrial methods of production of tall oil is significant losses of the finished product with the waste of production – the lignin phase. It is a stable emulsion of the oil-in-water type, stabilized by lignin. Traditional ways to reduce the loss of tall oil by destroying the lignin phase are associated with a number of difficulties and in industrial practice are almost not currently used. In the present work, in order to increase the yield of tall oil when it is separated from the sulphate soap, a method for breaking the emulsion by heat treatment is proposed. The effect of the heat treatment temperature on the yield of tall oil from the lignin phase was studied. Optimum in relation to the yield of tall oil from the lignin phase is the temperature-time mode of heat treatment. It is shown that, under the optimal regime, the loss of tall oil with waste is reduced by 80%. Based on the results of the studies, a variant of the mechanism of changes occurring with components of the lignin phase during heat treatment is proposed. The composition of the components of the product after heat treatment at different temperatures has been studied. The values of the quality indicators of the obtained tall oil were established and their compliance with the requirements of the standard-setting documents in force in the territory of Russia was assessed. It was noted that all the parameters of the oil obtained during heat treatment correspond to the values established in the normative documents at the processing temperature from 100 to 140 °С. Based on the results of work, the heat treatment mode optimized for yield and quality of tall oil is proposed.