Talker Groups Research Articles

Preliminary Investigation of the Relationship between the Temperament of Young Children Who Stutter and the Temperament of Their Parents

Previous studies suggest temperamental differences between young preschool-age children who stutter and those who do not. It is also known that parental socialization plays a major role in the temperamental development of children. However, to-date, whether temperamental differences exist between parents of children who stutter and parents of those who do not is unknown. The nature of relational differences between parent-child temperament across talker groups is also unclear. The present preliminary study examined the relationship between the temperament of parents and the temperament of children who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS). It was hypothesized that the temperament of CWS would differ significantly from CWNS and that the temperament of parents of CWS would differ significantly from parents of CWNS. Participants included 16 CWS and 16 CWNS (ages of 36 to 64 months) matched for age and gender. The primary parent for each child completed the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) and the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ) that assessed factors of the temperament of the child and parent, respectively. Data was subjected to a series of t-tests and correlational analyses. Preliminary findings indicated no significant difference in the temperament of CWS and CWNS and no significant difference in the temperament of parents of CWS and parents of CWNS according to the ATQ. Relational differences were noted between some aspects of the CBQ and the ATQ scores for both talker groups. Preliminary findings suggest no temperamental differences between CWS and CWNS or their parents. However, findings do suggest relational differences in parental socialization of emotional development between CWS and CWNS. Results also suggest a need to make parents of children who stutter aware of the importance of modeling appropriate use of emotions in order to influence emotional development of their child.

Judgments of American English male talkers who are perceived to sound gay or heterosexual: Certain personality traits are associated with each group of talkers

Prior research (Campbell-Kibler, 2011; Gaudio, 1994) discovered that some personality traits (e.g., emotional and intelligent) are associated with gay male talkers and other traits (e.g., masculine and reserved) are associated with heterosexual male talkers. The present investigation examined additional traits listeners associated with four groups of talkers: gay talkers who were perceived as sounding gay, gay talkers who were perceived as sounding heterosexual, heterosexual talkers who were perceived as sounding gay, and heterosexual talkers who were perceived as sounding heterosexual (Tracy, Bainter, & Satariano, 2015). After hearing a spoken utterance, listeners rated talkers along eight traits: bored, confident, intelligent, mad, old, outgoing, sad, and stuck-up (Tracy & Charlton, 2016). During the experiment, the talkers’ self-identified and perceived sexual orientation were not referenced. The results demonstrated that the gay and heterosexual talkers who were perceived as sounding gay were rated as being significantly more confident, mad, stuck-up, and outgoing; the gay and heterosexual talkers who were perceived as sounding heterosexual were rated as being significantly more bored, sad, and older. There were no significant rating differences for intelligence. It was concluded that a talker’s perceived sexual orientation, rather than their self-identified sexual orientation, influenced which personality traits listeners associated with them.

Self-perceived competence and social acceptance of young children who stutter: Initial findings

PurposeThe goals of this study were to determine whether young children who stutter (CWS) perceive their own competence and social acceptance differently than young children who do not stutter (CWNS), and to identify the predictors of perceived competence and social acceptance in young speakers. MethodWe administered the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (PSPCSA; Harter & Pike, 1984) to 13 CWS and 14 CWNS and examined group differences. We also collected information on the children’s genders, temperaments, stuttering frequencies, language abilities, and phonological skills to identify which of these factors predicted PSPCSA scores. ResultsCWS, as a group, did not differ from CWNS in their perceived general competence or social acceptance. Gender predicted scores of perceived general competence, and stuttering frequency predicted perceived social acceptance. Temperament, language abilities, and phonological skills were not significant predictors of perceived competence or social acceptance in our sample. ConclusionsWhile CWS did not significantly differ from CWNS in terms of perceived competence and social acceptance, when both talker groups were considered together, girls self-reported greater perceived competence than boys. Further, lower stuttering frequency was associated with greater perceived social acceptance. These preliminary findings provide motivation for further empirical study of the psychosocial components of childhood stuttering. Learning outcomesReaders will be able to describe the constructs of perceived competence and social acceptance in young children, and whether early stuttering plays a role in the development of these constructs.

Instruments for assessing receptive and expressive vocabularies in Brazilian Portuguese and Libras

Abstract The paper describes standardized instruments that researchers and practitioners can use for assessing receptive vocabulary development and expressive vocabulary development in both Brazilian Portuguese and Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) in both hearing and deaf children from 2 to 14 years of age. It establishes comparisons among such instruments based on their characteristics and indications, and summarizes some data on their validity, reliability and norms. Norms provided herein permit distinguishing among five talker groups (very late talkers, late talkers, on-time talkers, early talkers, very early talkers) at each of five age levels (i.e., from 1 to 5 years of age), as well as five listener groups (very late listeners, late listeners, on-time listeners, early listeners, very early listeners) at each of nine school grade levels (i.e., from Kindergarten to 8th grade). Norms provided herein also permit distinguishing among five sign receiver deaf groups (very late receivers, late receivers, on-time receivers, early receivers, very early receivers) at each of seven school grade levels of deaf education (i.e., from 2nd to 8th grade). Keywords: vocabulary, speech comprehension, speech production, oral language, lexical development, PPVT

The function of repeating: The relation between word class and repetition type in developmental stuttering.

It is already known that preschool-age children who stutter (CWS) tend to stutter on function words at the beginning of sentences. It is also known that phonological errors potentially resulting in part-word repetitions tend to occur on content words. However, the precise relation between word class and repetition type in preschool-age stuttering is unknown. To investigate repetitions associated with monosyllabic words in preschool-age CWS. Specifically, it was hypothesized that repetition type should vary according to word class in preschool-age CWS and children who do not stutter (CWNS). Thirteen preschool-age CWS and 15 preschool-age CWNS produced age-appropriate narratives, which were transcribed and coded for part-word repetitions (PWR) and whole-word repetitions (WWR) occurring on monosyllabic words. Each repetition type was also coded for word class (i.e., function versus content). Results indicated that although CWS and CWNS were significantly more likely to produce PWR on content words, this tendency did not differ between the two talker groups. Further, CWS and CWNS did not differ in their tendencies to produce PWR versus WWR overall, but the tendency to produce repetitions on function words was significantly greater for CWS versus CWNS. Findings are taken to suggest that repetitions of monosyllabic words in young children are not easily explained from the perspective of phonological errors, but may instead be considered from an incremental planning of speech perspective.

Motor practice effects and sensorimotor integration in adults who stutter: Evidence from visuomotor tracking performance

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to utilize a visuomotor tracking task, with both the jaw and hand, to add to the literature regarding non-speech motor practice and sensorimotor integration (outside of auditory-motor integration domain) in adults who do (PWS) and do not (PWNS) stutter. MethodParticipants were 15 PWS (14 males, mean age=27.0) and 15 PWNS (14 males, mean age=27.2). Participants tracked both predictable and unpredictable moving targets separately with their jaw and their dominant hand, and accuracy was assessed by calculating phase and amplitude difference between the participant and the target. Motor practice effect was examined by comparing group performance over consecutive tracking trials of predictable conditions as well as within the first trial of same conditions. ResultsResults showed that compared to PWNS, PWS were not significantly different in matching either the phase (timing) or the amplitude of the target in both jaw and hand tracking of predictable and unpredictable targets. Further, there were no significant between-group differences in motor practice effects for either jaw or hand tracking. Both groups showed improved tracking accuracy within and between the trials. ConclusionOur findings revealed no statistically significant differences in non-speech motor practice effects and integration of sensorimotor feedback between PWS and PWNS, at least in the context of the visuomotor tracking tasks employed in the study. In general, both talker groups exhibited practice effects (i.e., increased accuracy over time) within and between tracking trials during both jaw and hand tracking. Implications for these results are discussed.Educational Objectives: The reader will be able to: (a) describe the importance of motor learning and sensory-motor integration for speech, (b) summarize past research on PWS's performance during speech and nonspeech motor tasks, and (c) describe the relation between different aspects of speech and non-speech motor control and stuttering.

Robust speech perception: recognize the familiar, generalize to the similar, and adapt to the novel.

Successful speech perception requires that listeners map the acoustic signal to linguistic categories. These mappings are not only probabilistic, but change depending on the situation. For example, one talker's /p/ might be physically indistinguishable from another talker's /b/ (cf. lack of invariance). We characterize the computational problem posed by such a subjectively nonstationary world and propose that the speech perception system overcomes this challenge by (a) recognizing previously encountered situations, (b) generalizing to other situations based on previous similar experience, and (c) adapting to novel situations. We formalize this proposal in the ideal adapter framework: (a) to (c) can be understood as inference under uncertainty about the appropriate generative model for the current talker, thereby facilitating robust speech perception despite the lack of invariance. We focus on 2 critical aspects of the ideal adapter. First, in situations that clearly deviate from previous experience, listeners need to adapt. We develop a distributional (belief-updating) learning model of incremental adaptation. The model provides a good fit against known and novel phonetic adaptation data, including perceptual recalibration and selective adaptation. Second, robust speech recognition requires that listeners learn to represent the structured component of cross-situation variability in the speech signal. We discuss how these 2 aspects of the ideal adapter provide a unifying explanation for adaptation, talker-specificity, and generalization across talkers and groups of talkers (e.g., accents and dialects). The ideal adapter provides a guiding framework for future investigations into speech perception and adaptation, and more broadly language comprehension.

Coarticulation and speech stability for three lifespan groups

Using ultrasound recording of tongue movement during speech production, repetitions of kV initial monosyllabic words were measured for nine vowel contexts in three different age groups (children 8–12, young adults 18–35, and older adults 50–65). Coarticulation was measured by average minimum point-to-point distance between tongue traces (Zharkova & Hewlett 2009). Speech stability was quantified by average distance between productions with the same vowel. Coarticulation was quantified by average distance between productions with different vowels. For all three talker groups (n = 11 or greater per group), the measure of coarticulation was greater than the measure of stability, demonstrating coarticulatory differences. Across the lifespan, measures of coarticulation and stability both decreased from group to group. This suggests that speech production becomes more segmental (less coarticulated) and more stable (less variable) continuously throughout the lifespan of speaking experience.

Nonword repetition and phoneme elision in adults who do and do not stutter: Vocal versus nonvocal performance differences

PurposeThe purpose of the present study was to enhance our understanding of phonological working memory in adults who stutter through the comparison of nonvocal versus vocal nonword repetition and phoneme elision task performance differences. MethodFor the vocal nonword repetition condition, participants repeated sets of 4- and 7-syllable nonwords (n=12 per set). For the nonvocal nonword repetition condition, participants silently identified each target nonword from a subsequent set of three nonwords. For the vocal phoneme elision condition, participants repeated nonwords with a target phoneme eliminated. For the nonvocal phoneme elision condition, participants silently identified the nonword with the designated target phoneme eliminated from a subsequent set of three nonwords. ResultsAdults who stutter produced significantly fewer accurate initial productions of 7-syllable nonwords compared to adults who do not stutter. There were no talker group differences for the silent identification of nonwords, but both talker groups required significantly more mean number of attempts to accurately silently identify 7-syllable as compared to 4-syllable nonwords. For the vocal phoneme elision condition, adults who stutter were significantly less accurate than adults who do not stutter in their initial production and required a significantly higher mean number of attempts to accurately produce 7-syllable nonwords with a phoneme eliminated. This talker group difference was also significant for the nonvocal phoneme elision condition for both 4- and 7-syllable nonwords. ConclusionPresent findings suggest phonological working memory may contribute to the difficulties persons who stutter have establishing and/or maintaining fluent speech.Educational Objectives: (a) Readers can describe the role of phonological working memory in planning for and execution of speech; (b) readers can describe two experimental tasks for exploring the phonological working memory: nonword repetition and phoneme elision; (c) readers can describe how the nonword repetition and phoneme elision skills of adults who stutter differ from their typically fluent peers.

Heritage bilingual talkers do not exhibit an intelligibility penalty in either language

Some speakers have clearer voices than others. In the present study, we investigate whether early bilingualism has systematic repercussions for talker clarity, using a group of Korean-American heritage bilingual talkers, as well as American and Korean (near-)monolinguals. American monolinguals and the bilinguals produced English sentences, which were mixed with white noise at two signal-to-noise ratios and presented to native English listeners. Korean monolinguals and the same bilinguals produced Korean sentences, which were presented to native Korean listeners. In English, there was no monolingual/bilingual difference in talker clarity. In Korean, bilingual talkers were more clear than monolinguals. Post hoc investigation showed that Korean American bilinguals produced the Korean stimuli more slowly than monolinguals, explaining part of the bilingual advantage. Taken together, these results suggest that early bilingual exposure does not cause a talker clarity deficit, in either language.

Phonological complexity in school-aged children who stutter and exhibit a language disorder

PurposeThe Index of Phonological Complexity and the Word Complexity Measure are two measures of the phonological complexity of a word. Other phonological measures such as phonological neighborhood density have been used to compare stuttered versus fluent words. It appears that in preschoolers who stutter, the length and complexity of the utterance is more influential than the phonetic features of the stuttered word. The present hypothesis was that in school-age children who stutter, stuttered words would be more phonologically complex than fluent words, when the length and complexity of the utterance containing them is comparable. School-age speakers who stutter were hypothesized to differ from those with a concomitant language disorder. MethodsSixteen speakers, six females and ten males (M age=12;3; Range=7;7 to 19;5) available from an online database, were divided into eight who had a concomitant language disorder (S+LD) and eight age- and sex-matched speakers who did not (S-Only). ResultsWhen all stuttered content words were identified, S+LD speakers produced more repetitions, and S-Only speakers produced more inaudible sound prolongations. When stuttered content words were matched to fluent content words and when talker groups were combined, stuttered words were significantly (p≤0.01) higher in both the Index of Phonological Complexity and the Word Complexity Measure and lower in density (“sparser”) than fluent words. ConclusionsResults corroborate those of previous researchers. Future research directions are suggested, such as cross-sectional designs to evaluate developmental patterns of phonological complexity and stuttering plus language disordered connections.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (a) Define and describe phonological complexity; (b) Define phonological neighborhood density and summarize the literature on the topic; (c) Describe the Index of Phonological Complexity (IPC) for a given word; (d) Describe the Word Complexity Measure (WCM) for a given word; (e) Summarize two findings from the current study and describe how each relates to studies of phonological complexity and fluency disorders.

Speaking style adaptations across the lifespan

While intelligibility-enhancing speaking style modifications have been well researched in young adults, little is known about the development of speaking style adaptations across age. In particular, research on intelligibility-enhancing strategies in response to the environment (noise-adapted speech) and to the listener (clear speech) in children and older adult talkers is limited. In order to better understand how speech intelligibility varies with age, the present study examined conversational and clear speech sentences produced in quiet and in response to noise by 10 children (11–13 years old), 10 young adults (18–29 years old), and 10 older adults (60–84 years old). Twenty-two young adult listeners participated in word-recognition-in-noise and perceived age tasks. Results revealed that noise-adapted and clear speech modifications increased intelligibility for all talker groups compared to conversational speech produced in quiet, although children were marginally less intelligible. Perceived age strongly correlated with chronological age. Measures of F0, vowel space area, voice quality, spectral energy, and speaking rate were obtained for all talkers. Age-related differences were found for speaking rate, total energy in the 1-to-3 kHz region, and F0 mean. Further analyses will examine to what extent these acoustic-phonetic characteristics correlate with increases in intelligibility across speaking style adaptations and talker groups.

Nonword repetition and phoneme elision skills in school‐age children who do and do not stutter

Nonword repetition and phoneme elision represent the combined influence of several speech and language processes. In the present study we investigated nonword repetition and phoneme elision performance in school-age children who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CNS). Participants were 14 CWS (mean = 11.7 years, SD = 2.1 years) and age- and sex-matched CNS (mean = 11.8 years, SD = 2.0 years). Each talker group was further subdivided into two age groups: younger (N = 7; 8-11.5 years) and older (N = 7; 11.6-15 years). Repeated-measures analyses were conducted on the accuracy and response time (in seconds) data. In nonword repetition, the CWS showed a trend for lower per cent of correct phonemes at the two-syllable level compared with the CNS. In phoneme elision, the younger CWS showed a significantly lower accuracy rate than the older CWS at the two- and three-syllable nonword lengths, while similar differences were not evident between the younger versus older CNS at any of the nonword lengths. No accuracy difference in phoneme elision was noted between the two talker groups. Group differences in speech initiation times were also not evident in either of the tasks. Findings from nonword repetition offer tentative support for difficulties experienced by school-age CWS in phonemic encoding/working memory abilities. Findings from the phoneme elision task suggest a complex pattern of age-dependent performance by the CWS. Comparison of response accuracy and speech initiation times in both the tasks failed to show speed-accuracy trade-off strategies in either of the groups.

A moving target? Comparing within-talker variability in vowel production between native and non-native English speakers across two speech styles

Non-native English speakers may show greater variability in speech production than native talkers due to differences in their developing representations of second-language speech targets. Few studies have compared within-talker variability in speech production between native and non-native speakers. In the present study, vowels produced by four monolingual English speakers and four later learners of English as a second language (Spanish L1) were compared. Five repetitions of six target syllables (“bead, bid, bayed, bed, bad” and “bod”), produced in conversational and clear speech styles, were analyzed acoustically. Fundamental and formant frequencies were measured at 20, 50 and 80% of vowel duration. Standard deviations computed across the five repetitions of each vowel were compared across speaking styles and talker groups. Preliminary data analyses indicate greater within-talker variability for non-native than native talkers. Non-native talkers’ within-talker variability also increased from conversational to clear speech for most measures. For some native talkers, within-talker variability was smaller for vowels with near neighbors in the vowel space than for vowels with more spectrally distant neighbors. This correlation was stronger in clear speech for talkers who showed a significant clear-speech intelligibility benefit in production in a related study. Implications for theories of vowel production will be discussed.

Efficacy of attention regulation in preschool-age children who stutter: A preliminary investigation

PurposeThis preliminary investigation assessed the attentional processes of preschool-age children who do (CWS) and do not stutter (CWNS) during Traditional cueing and Affect cueing tasks. MethodParticipants consisted of 12 3- to 5-year-old CWS and the same number of CWNS (all boys). Both talker groups participated in two tasks of shifting and focusing attention: (a) Traditional cueing and (b) Affect cueing. The Affect cueing task was preceded by stress-heightening instructions intended to influence participants’ emotionality. In both tasks participants provided non-speech motor responses (i.e., button pressing) to computer-presented target stimuli. Targets were preceded by a visual cue (i.e., highlighted box) occurring in the same (i.e., Valid trials) or opposite (i.e., Invalid trials) location as the target stimuli. Reaction times (RT) were measured (in ms) from the onset of the target stimuli to the onset of the non-speech motor response. Errors were tallied for both experimental conditions and were categorized by type. ResultsFindings of this preliminary investigation indicated that there were no significant between-group differences in RT or frequency of erroneous responses. There were differences in error type that were correlated with RT for both CWS and CWNS when stress-heightening instructions were introduced. ConclusionPreliminary findings suggest that speed of attentional disengaging, shifting and re-engaging does not differ between preschool-age CWS and CWNS during the experimental paradigm employed in this study and that introducing stress-heightening instructions does affect components of performance for both preschool-age CWS and CWNS. Caveats for the present study include a limited sample size of young preschool-aged children as well as methodological concerns.Learning outcomes: Readers will be able to: (1) Define attention regulation and describe findings that investigate the role of attention regulation in developmental stuttering of preschool-age children; (2) Describe the components of attention regulation employed during a Posner Cueing Task; (3) Describe the findings of the present study in relation to other studies investigating attention regulation and developmental stuttering in preschool-age children.

Acoustic effects of neuromuscular electrical stimulation after a vocal loading task

Recent studies have examined the application of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) to treat individuals with voice disorders. Appropriate protocols should be established for effective use of NMES. The purpose of this study was to use acoustic data to evaluate the effectiveness of NMES to the anterior neck in reducing vocal fatigue and muscle soreness following a prolonged reading task. Recordings were taken from two groups of talkers. Both groups completed a 45 minute oral reading task, then 11 subjects underwent a 15 minute NMES session, another group of 11 subjects completed the reading task only. Audio recordings were made before the reading task, after the reading task, and after the final 15 minutes. Acoustic measures of recordings included fundamental frequency, relative speech amplitude, cepstral level, H1-H2, H1-A1, and H1-A3. Preliminary results indicate increases in fundamental frequency and relative speech amplitude at the end of the reading task relative to pre- and post-session levels. The increases were greater among subjects receiving NMES.

Parental phonological memory contributes to prediction of outcome of late talkers from 20 months to 4 years: a longitudinal study of precursors of specific language impairment

BackgroundMany children who are late talkers go on to develop normal language, but others go on to have longer-term language difficulties. In this study, we considered which factors were predictive of persistent problems in late talkers.MethodsParental report of expressive vocabulary at 18 months of age was used to select 26 late talkers and 70 average talkers, who were assessed for language and cognitive ability at 20 months of age. Follow-up at 4 years of age was carried out for 24 late and 58 average talkers. A psychometric test battery was used to categorize children in terms of language status (unimpaired or impaired) and nonverbal ability (normal range or more than 1 SD below average). The vocabulary and non-word repetition skills of the accompanying parent were also assessed.ResultsAmong the late talkers, seven (29%) met our criteria for specific language impairment (SLI) at 4 years of age, and a further two (8%) had low nonverbal ability. In the group of average talkers, eight (14%) met the criteria for SLI at 4 years, and five other children (8%) had low nonverbal ability. Family history of language problems was slightly better than late-talker status as a predictor of SLI.. The best predictors of SLI at 20 months of age were score on the receptive language scale of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning and the parent's performance on a non-word repetition task. Maternal education was not a significant predictor of outcome.ConclusionsIn this study, around three-quarters of late talkers did not have any language difficulties at 4 years of age, provided there was no family history of language impairment. A family history of language-literacy problems was found to be a significant predictor for persisting problems. Nevertheless, there are children with SLI for whom prediction is difficult because they did not have early language delay.

Late Talkers: Do Good Predictors of Outcome Exist?

Both small-scale and epidemiological longitudinal studies of early language delay indicate that most late talkers attain language scores in the average range by age 5, 6, or 7. However, late talker groups typically obtain significantly lower scores than groups with typical language histories on most language measures into adolescence. These findings support a dimensional account of language delay, whereby late talkers and typically developing peers differ quantitatively on a hypothetical language ability spectrum. Variation in language ability is presumed to derive from variation in skills subserving language, such as auditory perception/processing, word retrieval, verbal working memory, motor planning, phonological discrimination, and grammatical rule learning. Expressive language screening at 18-35 months can serve an important public health function by identifying children whose expressive delay is secondary to autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, hearing impairment, receptive language delay, or demographic risk. Finally, the review suggests that demographic risk associated with low SES may become more important as a causal factor in language delay as children get older.

When do which sounds tell you who says what? A phonetic investigation of the familiar talker advantage in word recognition

This study investigated whether voice quality, which is a highly salient cue to talker identity, facilitates the process of word recognition for familiar talkers. Two groups of listeners were trained to identify the same set of talkers. One group of listeners heard these talkers speaking in a variety of voice qualities (modal, creaky, and breathy), while another group of listeners heard each talker speaking in only one voice quality. Both groups of listeners were then tested on their ability to identify words spoken by these familiar talkers—in a variety of voice qualities—and also words spoken by a group of unfamiliar talkers. Results showed that voice quality had a significant effect on word recognition scores. Both groups also exhibited better word recognition scores for familiar talkers. However, the familiar talker advantage in word recognition did not depend on voice quality; the familiar voice qualities of familiar talkers did not produce better word recognition scores than the unfamiliar voice qualities of familiar talkers. These combined results suggest that any integration of linguistic and indexical information in word recognition emerges from a subset of the phonetic features of the speech signal and is not, therefore, a strictly general property of speech perception.

Stability of compensatory behavior for real-time perturbations of vowel formants

While we talk, not only do we listen to the speech sounds other people make but also we listen to our own voice in order to control the phonetic/phonological details of the sounds. One example of this relationship is demonstrated by real-time formant perturbation studies which show that talkers automatically change their formant production when auditory feedback does not match with the vowel they intend to produce. The reported results are consistent across studies, yet the variability between talkers is usually quite large, with some talkers showing a large magnitude compensation while others compensate modestly. To date, the degree to which talkers compensate has been assumed to be stable, but this has never been directly examined. The current study tested the stability of compensatory behavior for perturbed formant shifted feedback by repeatedly testing a group of talkers over the course of a few weeks to measure the variance in formant values and compensation across experimental sessions. The results will be discussed in terms of sensorimotor adjustment and speech production models.