Tainted Carcasses Research Articles

How to Improve Meat Quality and Welfare in Entire Male Pigs by Genetics.

Simple SummarySuccessful breeding of entire male pigs needs a better understanding of factors driving meat quality and behavior traits as entire male pigs have lower meat quality, including an occasional strong defect known as boar taint, and more aggressive and sexual behavior. The review provides an update on how genetic factors affecting boar taint compounds and aggressive behavior in male pigs with emphasis on application in selection.Giving up surgical castration is desirable to avoid pain during surgery but breeding entire males raises issues on meat quality, particularly on boar taint, and aggression. It has been known for decades that boar taint is directly related to sexual development in uncastrated male pigs. The proportion of tainted carcasses depends on many factors, including genetics. The selection of lines with a low risk of developing boar taint should be considered as the most desirable solution in the medium to long term. It has been evidenced that selection against boar taint is feasible, and has been set up in a balanced way in some pig populations to counterbalance potential unfavorable effects on reproductive performances. Selection against aggressive behaviors, though theoretically feasible, faces phenotyping challenges that compromise selection in practice. In the near future, new developments in modelization, automatic recording, and genomic data will help define breeding objectives to solve entire male meat quality and welfare issues.

Effect of processing on the concentrations of boar taint compounds skatole and androstenone in different types of sausage

In order to valorize tainted meat from entire male pigs, two options exist in the production of different meat products: either to dilute tainted meat or to mask off-odors in the final product. Processing steps may also reduce the concentrations of boar taint compounds. This study investigated the impact of different processing methods on the concentrations of boar taint compounds skatole and androstenone in meat products. Three different types of German sausages, such as raw fermented (salami), boiled (wiener), and cooked meat sausages (liver sausage), were produced from boar meat and fat with either “high” or “low” taint level. Heating during processing, especially the production of wiener and liver sausage, reduced androstenone concentrations between 44 and 87%. In salami, androstenone concentrations were not reduced during production process. In contrast, skatole reductions of up to 26% were observed for salami and up to 44% for wiener, whereas liver sausage was not affected. Practical applications The risk of offensive boar taint is one of the main disadvantages of pork production with entire males. If the detection of tainted carcasses at the slaughter line can be improved, a valid strategy to valorize such carcasses is crucial. The study revealed that open heating during processing has the potential to reduce androstenone, whereas smoking of the products seems to reduce skatole concentrations in the final product.

Consumers' perception and acceptance of boiled and fermented sausages from strongly boar tainted meat

Characteristic off-flavours may occur in uncastrated male pigs depending on the accumulation of androstenone and skatole. Feasible processing of strongly tainted carcasses is challenging but gains in importance due to the European ban on piglet castration in 2018. This paper investigates consumers' acceptability of two sausage types: (a) emulsion-type (BOILED) and (b) smoked raw-fermented (FERM). Liking (9 point scales) and flavour perception (check-all-that-apply with both, typical and negatively connoted sensory terms) were evaluated by 120 consumers (within-subject design). Proportion of tainted boar meat (0, 50, 100%) affected overall liking of BOILED, F (2, 238)=23.22, P<.001, but not of FERM sausages, F (2, 238)=0.89, P=.414. Consumers described the flavour of BOILED-100 as strong and sweaty. In conclusion, FERM products seem promising for processing of tainted carcasses whereas formulations must be optimized for BOILED in order to eliminate perceptible off-flavours. Boar taint rejection thresholds may be higher for processed than those suggested for unprocessed meat cuts.

Boar taint compound levels in back fat versus meat products: Do they correlate?

Surgical castration of male pigs will soon be abandoned, turning a major advantage of this practice, the elimination of boar taint, into the biggest challenge for pig industry when raising intact male pigs becomes common practice. To map the (economical) consequences in relation to boar-taint consumer acceptance, as well as offer a processing strategy for tainted carcasses to stockholders, the current study investigated not only back fat boar taint levels, but additionally generated information on the levels of boar taint compounds recovered after the production of commercially relevant meat products using UHPLC-HRMS laboratory analysis. Our results demonstrate that levels of androstenone, skatole and indole in back fat and meat products tend to correlate strongly, particularly in fatty meat products (generally r>0.80). Concentration values in the edible (lean) meat fraction were significantly lower compared to back fat and fat sampled from fresh or processed meat (p<0.05).

Entire male pig production in Europe

In Europe the proportion of male pigs that are left ‘entire’ has been high for many years in the British Isles and Iberian Peninsula, and has recently increased in The Netherlands and to a lesser extent in Germany and France. Various European Union partners agreed in 2010 on a road map to abandon piglet castration by 1 January 2018. Despite significant commercial in-confidence research on instrumental methods for detecting boar-tainted carcasses at slaughter plants, nothing is currently being adopted at an industrial scale. A few abattoirs sort out the most heavily tainted carcasses, using human nose methods. However, there are major concerns with their accuracy, which is currently not documented in any publicly available technical report. The importance of androstenone and skatole for boar taint is still debated but a recent study (CAMPIG; G Backus, H Snoek, MA Oliver, M Font i Furnols, M Aluwé, F Tuyttens, M Bonneau, P Chevillon, MD Aaslyng, D Moerlein, L Meier-Dinkel, J Trautmann, J-E Haugen, unpubl. data) has established preliminary equations relating consumer dissatisfaction to androstenone and skatole levels. These equations still need further consolidation to integrate the impact of very high and very low androstenone levels on consumer acceptability. Reducing the incidence of boar taint at a production level and at the same time overcoming possible greater aggressive behaviour of entire male pigs are also critical for abandoning castration. Genetic selection is the most efficient way to reduce androstenone, but the selection of boar-taint-free genetic lines without any adverse consequence on the reproductive and growth performance will take time. Skatole levels can be efficiently reduced via feeding specific feedstuffs and good control of the animals’ environment. Provided that the incidence of boar taint can be reduced to an acceptable level and the residual tainted carcasses can be sorted out at a reasonable price by mutually recognised methods, the abandonment of castration will result in high benefits, up to one-billion euros for both the pork industry, via a drastic reduction of production costs, and society at large, through improved animal welfare and reduced impact on the environment.

Weight and season affects androstenone and skatole occurrence in entire male pigs in organic pig production

To investigate the extent to which the level of androstenone and skatole decreases with a decrease in live weight and/or age at slaughter of entire male pigs produced under organic standards, 1174 entire male pigs were raised in parallel in five organic herds, distributed across four batches in summer and winter. The median androstenone level was high for organic entire male pigs (1.9 µg/g), but varied greatly both within and between herds. Median skatole level was 0.05 µg/g, also with a wide range both within and between herds. Decreasing live weight over the range of 110±15.6 kg s.d. was found to decrease androstenone as well as skatole concentration, however, with different patterns of association. Age did not have significant direct effect on either androstenone or skatole levels. Androstenone levels were higher during winter than summer (P<0.0001), but no difference in skatole was found between seasons. The study concludes that decreasing live weight at slaughter could be an applicable management tool to reduce risk of boar taint and the level of tainted carcasses for a future production of entire male pigs within the organic pig production system, although further studies are needed as great variation in boar taint was found also for low weight animals.

A performance test for boar taint compounds in live boars

Genetically reducing boar taint using low-taint lines is considered the most sustainable and economic long-term alternative to surgical castration of male pigs. Owing to the high heritability of the main boar taint components (androstenone, skatole and indole), breeding is an excellent tool for reducing the number of tainted carcasses. To incorporate boar taint into breeding programmes, standardized performance testing is required. The objective of this study was to develop and formally present a performance test for the main boar taint compounds on live breeding candidates. First, a standardized performance test for boar taint was established. A biopsy device was developed to extract small tissue samples (200 to 300 mg) from breeding candidates. Quantification of boar taint components from these small samples using specialized chemical extraction methods proved accurate and repeatable (r = 0.938). Following establishment of the method, biopsy samples of 516 live boars (100 to 130 kg live weight) were collected in the second step. Various mixed linear models were tested for each boar taint compound; models were ranked in terms of their information content. Pedigree information of 2245 ancestors of biopsied animals was included, and genetic parameters were estimated using univariate and multivariate models. Androstenone (in μg/g liquid fat (LF): mean = 0.578, σ = 0.527), skatole (in μg/g LF: mean = 0.033, σ = 0.002) and indole (in μg/g LF: mean = 0.032, σ = 0.002) levels obtained by biopsy were plausible. Heritability estimates for androstenone calculated with univariate (0.453) and multivariate (0.452) analyses were comparable to those in the literature. Heritabilities for skatole (0.495) and indole (0.550) were higher than that for androstenone. Genetic and phenotypic correlations were similar to those published previously. Our results show that data on boar taint compounds from small adipose samples obtained by biopsy provide similar genetic parameters as that described in the literature for larger samples and are therefore a reliable performance test for boar taint in live breeding candidates.

A single nucleotide polymorphism in the CYP2E1 gene promoter affects skatole content in backfat of boars of two commercial Duroc-sired crossbred populations

The prevention of unpleasant boar taint is the main reason for castration of male piglets. This study aimed to investigate how the malodorous compound skatole is affected by a single nucleotide polymorphism (g.2412 C>T at −586 ATG) in the porcine cytochrome p450 II E1 (CYP2E1) gene. 119 boars of two commercial Duroc-sired crossbred populations raised at different farms were investigated. Skatole and androstenone in backfat averaged 114±125ng/g and 1206±895ng/g melted fat, respectively. The frequency of the genotypes CC, CT, and TT was 25, 52, and 23%, respectively. CC boars had the highest average skatole levels (175ng/g) compared to CT (92ng/g) and TT (93ng/g). Applying suggested sensory threshold levels for skatole (>150ng/g) and androstenone (>2000ng/g), 30% of the carcasses may be unacceptably tainted while the proportion of tainted carcasses is significantly higher within genotype CC (56.7%) compared to genotypes CT (24.3%) and TT (14.8%). Effective reduction of tainted carcasses appears feasible applying marker assisted selection.

Early vaccination with Improvac®: effects on performance and behaviour of male pigs

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of giving a two-dose regimen of gonadotropin-releasing hormone vaccine, Improvac® (Pfizer Ltd), earlier than currently recommended, on performance and behaviour of growing/finishing pigs. Cross-bred male pigs (n = 192) were randomly allocated, within a litter, into four groups at birth: one group of pigs surgically castrated without anaesthesia before one week of age, a second group of early vaccinated pigs given Improvac at 10 and 14 weeks of age, a third group of standard vaccinated pigs given Improvac at 16 and 20 weeks of age, so that the second vaccination was given 4 to 6 weeks before slaughter as recommended by the manufacturer, and a fourth group of entire male pigs. The experiment started when the pigs were 12 weeks old and lasted until 25 weeks of age, when the pigs were slaughtered. The pigs were fed restrictedly. Daily weight gain and feed conversion during the entire raising period did not differ significantly between groups. Estimated lean meat content of early vaccinated and surgically castrated pigs was lower when compared with entire male pigs, whereas standard vaccinated pigs did not differ from entire males. Dressing percentage was higher in early vaccinated and surgically castrated pigs than in standard vaccinated and entire male pigs, partly because of lower size and weight of reproductive organs. For both groups of vaccinated pigs, both problematic and non-problematic behaviours decreased after their second injection, from the levels of entire males to those of surgically castrated pigs. After the second injection, pigs of both vaccination groups performed no mountings, in contrast with entire male pigs of the same age. Skin lesions at slaughter were fewer and less severe for vaccinated pigs compared with entire male pigs. No difference in income per carcass was observed for surgically castrated or vaccinated pigs. However, for entire male pigs the income was lower, as the payment system in Sweden also takes into consideration the additional cost for boar taint analyses and reduced payment for tainted carcasses. Under our experimental conditions, early vaccination with Improvac can be used as an alternative to the recommended schedule to minimise problematic behaviour with unaffected profitability.

THE PIED CROW (CORVUS ALBUS) IS INSENSITIVE TO DICLOFENAC AT CONCENTRATIONS PRESENT IN CARRION

Diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), kills vultures (Gyps spp.) that consume tainted carcasses. As a result, vulture populations in India, Nepal, and Pakistan have been devastated. Studies on meloxicam and ketoprofen demonstrated that the toxicity of the NSAIDs is unpredictable, thereby necessitating individual testing of all available NSAIDs. Because it is no longer practical to use vultures for toxicity testing, we evaluated the Pied Crow (Corvus albus) as a model. Pied Crows (n=6) were exposed to a dose of 0.8 and 10 mg/kg of diclofenac, with no signs of toxicity, and a rapid half-life of elimination. Using primary renal cell and hepatocyte cultures, a high tolerance was demonstrated at the cellular level. Meta-analysis of pharmacokinetic data for the Domestic Chicken (Gallus gallus) and the African White-backed (Gyps africanus), Cape Griffon (Gyps coprotheres), and Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) showed a trend toward toxicity when the half-life of elimination increased. We conclude that the crow is not susceptible to diclofenac and, more important, that toxicity in the Gyps species is probably related to zero-order metabolism.

Effect of housing system, slaughter weight and slaughter strategy on carcass and meat quality, sex organ development and androstenone and skatole levels in Duroc finished entire male pigs

This study aimed at evaluating the effect of housing system (HS), slaughter weight (SW) and strategy (SS) on carcass a nd meat quality, sexual organ development and boar taint in entire males. Twelve pens of 10 pigs were used (two trials). Half of male pens were allowed visual contact with females (MF) and half with males (MM). Half MM or MF were slaughtered at 105 or 130kg in trial 1, or penwise or by split marketing in trial 2 at 120kg. Housing system showed no significant effect on carcass or meat quality. MF presented significantly longer testicles and heavier bulbourethral glands compared to MM. The distribution of androstenone and skatole levels was affected by SW but not by HS or SS, samples with androstenone >1μg/g of the different groups falling within the range of 16 to 22%. All correlations between androstenone and sex organs were significant. Housing system and slaughter strategy did not reduce the risk of boar tainted carcasses.

Reducing the length of time between slaughter and the secondary gonadotropin-releasing factor immunization improves growth performance and clears boar taint compounds in male finishing pigs1

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether altering the timing of the secondary anti-gonadotropin-releasing factor (GnRF) immunization closer to slaughter in male finishing pigs would reduce the increase in P2 fat depth (6.5 cm from the midline over the last rib), while still limiting the incidence of boar taint. Entire male pigs are immunized against GnRF to reduce the concentration of testicular steroids that in turn limits the incidence of boar taint. Additionally, testicle measurements and color measurements were taken to examine whether they could be used to differentiate nonimmunized entire males from immunized male pigs. A total of 175 Large White × Landrace entire male pigs aged 16 wk (59 kg of BW) were used in a completely randomized design with 5 treatment groups based on the time that pigs received the secondary immunization before slaughter. Pigs were housed in groups of 7 and randomly allocated to 1 of 5 treatments with 5 replicates per treatment. The treatment groups were as follows: no secondary immunization before slaughter, and the secondary immunization given at 2, 3, 4, or 6 wk before slaughter. The P2 fat depth levels were reduced (P = 0.054) with the secondary immunization closer to slaughter (11.7, 11.3, 12.8, 12.6, and 13.7 mm for no secondary immunization, secondary immunization at 2, 3, 4, and 6 wk before slaughter, respectively). Androstenone concentration did not exceed the generally accepted industry sensory threshold of 1.0 µg/g of fat, and both androstenone concentration in the adipose tissue and testosterone concentrations in the blood were suppressed (P < 0.001) in all immunized pigs regardless of timing of the secondary immunization compared with pigs that did not receive the secondary immunization. Skatole concentration of all pigs in the experiment did not exceed the generally accepted industry sensory threshold of 0.2 µg/g. Testes weight was reduced (P < 0.001) with increased time between slaughter and the secondary immunization. Immunized pigs, regardless of time before slaughter, had greater L* (lightness) and b* (yellowness) color of the testicle surface (P < 0.001 and P = 0.020, respectively), and less a* (redness) color compared with entire males (P < 0.001). The study provides further evidence of the efficacy of the anti-GnRF immunization and indicates that the secondary immunization can be moved closer to slaughter, while still limiting the incidence of boar taint. Testicle measurements and color measurements together could provide a method of discrimination between carcasses from immunized entire males clear of boar taint and tainted carcasses.

Boar Taint Detection Using Parasitoid Biosensors

The off-flavor boar taint associated with the substances skatole, androstenone, and possibly indole represents a significant problem in the pig husbandry industry. Boar taint may occur in meat from uncastrated sexually mature male pigs; consumers commonly show a strong aversion to tainted meat. Consequently, there is a need for rapid methods to sort out and remove tainted carcasses at the slaughterline. We tested the ability of wasps, Microplitis croceipes to perceive and learn the 3 boar taint compounds both individually and in combination using classical conditioning paradigms. We also established the effectiveness and reliability of boar taint odor detection when wasps were used as biosensors in a contained system called the "wasp hound" using a cohort of trained wasps. We found that the wasps are able to successfully learn indole, skatole and to also detect them when presented a 1:1:1 mixture of all 3 compounds. This was shown for both a single hand-manipulated wasp bioassay and when using the "wasp hound" detector device. In contrast, the wasps showed a weak conditioned response to androstenone at the concentration tested. The estimated gas phase concentrations that the wasps perceived during training were in the range of 10 ± 0.4 pg/s for skatole and indole, and 2 ± 0.5 pg/s for androstenone. We conclude that use of these wasps as biosensors presents a promising method for boar taint detection and discuss future training paradigms that may improve their responses to compounds such as androstenone. Practical Application: The development of a perceptive, inexpensive, and reliable means of detecting boar taint before the product is presented to sensitive consumers.

Biochemical, nutritional and genetic effects on boar taint in entire male pigs

Pork odour is to a great extent affected by the presence of malodorous compounds, mainly androstenone and skatole. The present review outlines the current state of knowledge about factors involved in the regulation of androstenone and skatole in entire male pigs. Androstenone is a pheromonal steroid synthesised in the testes and metabolised in the liver. Part of androstenone accumulates in adipose tissue causing a urine-like odour. Skatole is produced in the large intestine by bacterial degradation of tryptophan and metabolised by hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes and sulphotransferase. The un-metabolised part accumulates in adipose tissue, causing faecal-like odour. Androstenone levels are mostly determined by genetic factors and stage of puberty, whereas skatole levels in addition to genetic background and hormonal status of the pigs are also controlled by nutritional and environmental factors. To reduce the risk of tainted carcasses entering the market, male pigs are surgically castrated in many countries. However, entire males compared to castrates have superior production characteristics: higher growth rate, better feed efficiency and leaner carcasses. Additionally, animal welfare aspects are currently of particular importance in light of increasing consumers’ concerns. Nutrition, hormonal status, genetic influence on boar taint compounds and the methods to develop genetic markers are discussed. Boar taint due to high levels of skatole and androstenone is moderately heritable and not all market weight entire males have boar taint; it should thus be possible to select for pigs that do not have boar taint. In these studies, it is critical to assess the steroidogenic potential of the pigs in order to separate late-maturing pigs from those with a low genetic potential for boar taint. A number of candidate genes for boar taint have been identified and work is continuing to develop genetic markers for low boar taint. More research is needed to clarify the factors involved in the development of boar taint and to develop additional methods to prevent the accumulation of high concentrations of skatole and androstenone in fat. This review proposes those areas requiring further research.

Sorting criteria. Methods for on-line/at-line sorting of entire male carcasses with emphasis on the Danish method based on skatole content

Recently, however, animal welfare aspects have become more dominant than economy, and in certain states legislation is being prepared banning castration altogether, or only allowing castration when the piglets are fully anaesthetized. Together with another fact, i.e. the fact that meat from some uncastrated male pigs exhibits an unpleasant odour when heated, these developments have emphasized the need for being able to sort out the tainted carcasses.

The potential to detect boar tainted carcasses by using an electronic nose based on mass spectrometry

Based on a parliamentary decision, in the year 2009 castration of male piglets without anesthesia will be banned in Switzerland. Thus, pig producers are forced to search for alternatives to the common practice. Rearing intact male pigs to market weight could constitute one possible alternative solution. However, producers, retailers, and consumers are concerned about the incidence of taint in pork. Therefore, a reliable, fast, and objective method to detect carcasses with the undesirable odor is a prerequisite for boar production. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of an electronic nose (SMart Nose 151, LDZ, Switzerland) with a mass spectrometer (quadripole) as a detector to classify boar tainted carcasses.

The effect of age on distribution of skatole and indole levels in entire male pigs in four breeds: Yorkshire, Landrace, Hampshire and Duroc

High skatole and to a lesser degree indole levels in some entire male pigs result in occurrence of off-flavor in meat, called boar taint. In this study, plasma samples from 117 Yorkshire, 134 Landrace, 184 Hampshire and 75 Duroc entire male pigs collected at different ages were analyzed for skatole and slightly fewer samples for indole concentrations. For each breed, a distinct age-related distribution of plasma skatole levels was observed. Skatole levels were increased at approximately 180–200 days of age, reaching very high levels is some individuals. Afterwards, the levels decreased; in Yorkshire and Landrace at approximately 240–260 and in Hampshire and Duroc at 310–360 days of age. The decrease of skatole levels was also observed in samples collected from 15 Landrace boars at two different ages: 16.8 μg/L (SD=17.36) vs. 5.9 μg/L (SD=3.48, p=0.016) in samples taken at the mean age of 210 and 314 days, respectively. Indole levels showed similar age- and breed-related variations to skatole. At the time of increased skatole concentrations (age from 180 to 360 days, depending on breed) 25.5% of Yorkshire, 31.6% of Landrace, 20.3% of Hampshire and 61.1% of Duroc entire male pigs had skatole levels above 12.6 μg/L of plasma, which corresponds to the threshold level of 0.20 μg/g of fat that is used for selecting tainted carcasses. The results indicate that increased levels of skatole in entire male pigs are related to puberty and taking skatole measurements at that age could be advantageous when considering genetic selection to reduce boar taint level in entire male pigs. Breed differences should be also taken into account.

Comparison of the accuracies of chemical and sensory tests for detecting taint in pork

Abstract Chemical and sensory tests are widely used to detect boar taint in meat from entire male pigs. Chemical tests typically assess tissue levels of the compounds associated with taint, including 16-androstenes, like 5α-androstenone, and skatole. Sensory tests classify boar carcasses into either tainted or untainted categories according to test criteria assessed by human evaluators. The threshold levels of taint compounds are typically determined according to the results of chemical tests. This experiment was designed to compare chemical analyses and sensory tests by a trained panel for the determination of taint and to study their accuracies. Fat samples were taken in a slaughterhouse from 220 intact male pigs killed at 100.4 ± 0.4 kg body weight. Fat samples, frozen after collection at slaughter, were subsequently analyzed for levels of androstenone and skatole using a colorimetric method. Samples also were evaluated by a trained sensory panel for the presence of boar taint. Forty-nine percent of males had fat androstenone levels above 1.0 ppm, the cutoff level used to discriminate tainted from untainted pork. Only 2% of pigs had fat skatole levels above 0.25 ppm of cutoff level. Fifteen percent of boars were judged as tainted by the sensory panel. Based on the cutoff levels of 1.0 ppm of fat androstenone and 0.25 ppm of fat skatole, the sensitivities and specificities of the chemical analysis were, respectively, 100% and 54.1% for androstenone, and 8.0% and 99.0% for skatole. The sensitivity and specificity of pooled data (combined androstenone and skatole) were 84.8% and 57.2%, respectively; positive and negative predictive values were 25.9% and 95.5%, respectively. These results suggest that fat androstenone is more reliable than skatole for identifying taint. Furthermore, chemical analysis of tissue levels of androstenone and skatole does not identify all tainted carcasses, suggesting that other compounds may also contribute to taint.

Quality of meat from entire male pigs

This paper reviews the meat quality characteristics of meat from entire male pigs. The advantages and disadvantages of meat from entire male pigs are discussed. The areas requiring further study are emphasized. Entire males, compared to other genders, have a slightly lower dressing percentage (2–2.5%) but higher lean content (5%). Entire male carcasses also have less fat, and the adipose tissue of entire males is softer due to higher levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Processing characteristics do not differ essentially between genders, with the exception of processing yields, which are slightly lower for entire males. Entire males have a slightly higher incidence of DFD meat and skin damage. Boar taint is mainly due to high levels of androstenone and skatole in the fat. The incidence, methods for measuring and control of boar taint are reviewed. Generally, the levels of boar taint in entire males at market weight are low. However, an objective screening test is required to identify tainted carcasses. Other than boar taint, sensory characteristics do not meaningfully differ between genders. Processing can reduce the intensity of boar taint, and methods for utilization of tainted meat are discussed. The use of entire males for meat production may increase the profitability of the pork industry.

Consumer responses to fresh meat and meat products from barrows and boars with different levels of boar taint

ABSTRACTIn a consumer trial the assessments of 874 cooks and 5034 family members were analysed. Forty-one boar and 40 barrow carcasses were selected in a commercial abattoir so that the two sexes were similar in carcass weight, fat thickness and muscle pH. A boar sample including a higher proportion of tainted carcasses was selected. It was divided into three boar taint-level subgroups according to their 5a-androst- 16-ene-3-one (androstenone) concentration in fat (Jig androstenone per g fat) as follows: L &lt; 0·5 (no. = 17), M 0·5 to 1·0 (no. = 13) and H &gt; 1·0 (no. = 11). From each carcass, loin/rib chops were prepared and cooked hams, brine-cured bellies and Spanish dry-cured hams were processed. An analysis of variance was used to estimate the effects of sex and boar taint levels. Cooks (P &lt; 0·05) and family members (P &lt; 0·01) reported a higher level of odour for boar chops. A higher level of unfavourable responses to odour and flavour were found in the H taint-level subgroup. Also, the H taint-level group produced the highest proportion of negative judgements on overall acceptability in comparison with normal purchases. The response of cooks to odour from brine-cured bellies was significantly affected by sex (boar and barrow). For bellies, odour, overall acceptability and comparison with normal purchases were significantly affected by the boar taint-level subgroups (P &lt; 005). The treatments had no significant effect on any quality question related to boar taint in cooked ham. However, boar taint level significantly affected the assessments of flavour and overall acceptability from Spanish dry-cured ham (P &lt; 0·01). A higher proportion of negative responses was found in the H taint-level subgroup. The trial indicates that boar meat can produce an unfavourable response from consumers for fresh meat (chops) or products needing heating prior to consumption (brine-cured bellies). However, in cooked products with hot processing and cold consumption (cooked ham) no negative effect from using boar meat was observed. To produce Spanish dry-cured ham, androstenone quantification should be carried out to avoid consumer dissatisfaction.