Tail Shape Research Articles

Phenotypic characteristics of Sakub sheep as local livestock genetic resources

Abstract. Nurasih AD, Sumaryadi MY, Hidayah CN, Nugroho AP, Setyaningrum A, Haryoko I, Yuwono P, Sodiq A. 2023. Phenotypic characteristics of Sakub sheep as local livestock genetic resources. Biodiversitas 24: 5671-5675. Sakub sheep is an indigenous sheep with a giant body in the Brebes Regency. Phenotypic characterization is important to increase the population and productivity of Sakub sheep. By combining quantitative and qualitative data, this study will provide a comprehensive insight into the phenotypic profile of Sakub sheep. This study determined the quantitative and qualitative phenotypic characteristics of Sakub sheep. The Sakub sheep used were owned by smallholder farmers using the survey method with interview techniques, observation, and direct measurement of livestock. Samples were taken using purposive sampling in Pandansari and Wanareja villages, which have the largest sheep populations and are easily accessible. The sheep used were rams and ewes sheep in the age group of 1-1.5 years (P0), 1.5-2 years (P1), 2-2.5 years (P2), 2.5-3 years (P3). Phenotypic characteristics observed included quantitative characteristics of body size and qualitative characteristics of body morphology. Body size was measured using measuring tape and hanging scales, including Body Weight (BW), Body Length (BL), Whither Height (WH), Chest Girth (CG), Ear Length (EL), And Tail Length (TL). Body morphology includes head color, body color, face profile, and tail shape. Quantitative characters were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and qualitative characters were analyzed descriptively using relative frequency. The results showed quantitative phenotypic characteristics of Sakub sheep at the age of 1-1.5 years; 1.5-2 years; 2-2.5 years, and 2.5-3 years, such as body weight, body length, chest circumference, whither height, ear length, and tail length increased with age. The qualitative phenotypic characteristics of Sakub sheep are having a head and body with a combination of colors but dominant white, a convex head profile, no horns, and a thin and fat tail.

Modeling Extreme Events: Time-Varying Extreme Tail Shape

We propose a dynamic semiparametric framework to study time variation in tail parameters. The framework builds on the Generalized Pareto Distribution (GPD) for modeling peaks over thresholds as in Extreme Value Theory, but casts the model in a conditional framework to allow for time-variation in the tail parameters. We establish parameter regions for stationarity and ergodicity and for the existence of (unconditional) moments and consider conditions for consistency and asymptotic normality of the maximum likelihood estimator for the deterministic parameters in the model. Two empirical datasets illustrate the usefulness of the approach: daily U.S. equity returns, and 15-min euro area sovereign bond yield changes.

Reidentification of Wayaosaurus bellus and the conservative trunk and tail shape of Thalattosauria

ABSTRACT Thalattosauria is an enigmatic marine reptile clade that from the Middle to Late Triassic. The taxonomy and relationships within this clade remain controversial. Here, we redescribed the holotype of Wayaosaurus bellus, GZDB 0005, from the Upper Triassic rocks of Guanling, Guizhou Province, China. The specimen was originally and previously misidentified as a pachypleurosaur, but we hereby emend its diagnosis and discussed its taxonomy and systematic affinity. Miodentosaurus brevis shares diagnostic characters with GZDB 0005, suggesting that M. brevis may be a junior synonym of W. bellus. We also investigated evolutionary trends in thalattosaur morphology. Compared to Ichthyosauriformes and Sauropterygia, the trunk size and tail length/trunk length ratio showed a reversed evolutionary trend in Thalattosauria. Categories within the morphospaces of thalattosaur rostrum types are isolated, while their functional significance still remains unclear. Our results suggest that the diverse morphotypes of Ichthyosauriformes and Sauropterygia were related to ecological specialisation and adaptation to oceanic environment and pelagic environments in the Middle-Late Triassic, while Thalattosauria may have been restricted in the nearshore. Thalattosauria may have been outcompeted by Ichthyosauriformes and Sauropterygia in the oceanic environment due to their conservative trunk and tail shape, and their diversity declined after the Carnian.

Non-forward radiative corrections to electron-carbon scattering

Radiative corrections to elastic scattering represent an important part of the interpretation of electron-induced nuclear reactions at small energy transfers, where they represent a dominant part of the background. Here we present and validate a new event generator for simulating QED radiative processes in electron-carbon scattering that exactly calculates the coherent sum of the Bethe-Heitler amplitudes for the leading diagrams. We demonstrate that the generator describes the shape of the radiative tail of an elastic peak with a precision better than 10% over the whole energy range of the scattered electrons and can thus be reliably employed in the analyses of electron scattering experiments for more precise extraction of inelastic cross-sections.

Tail shape and the swimming speed of sharks.

Trait-based ecology is a rapidly growing approach for developing insights and predictions for data-poor species. Caudal tail fin shape has the potential to reveal much about the energetics, activity and ecology of fishes and can be rapidly measured from field guides, which is particularly helpful for data-sparse species. One outstanding question is whether swimming speed in sharks is related to two morphological traits: caudal fin aspect ratio (CFAR, height2/tail area) and caudal lobe asymmetry ratio (CLAR). We derived both metrics from the species drawings in Sharks of the world (Ebert et al. 2013 Sharks of the world: a fully illustrated guide) and related fin shape to two published datasets of (1) instantaneous swimming speeds (Jacoby et al. 2015 Biol. Lett. 11, 20150781 (doi:10.1098/rsbl.2015.0781)) and (2) cruising speeds (Harding et al. 2021 Funct. Ecol. 35, 1951-1959 (doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13869)) for 28 total unique shark species. Both estimates of swimming speed were positively related to CFAR (and weakly negatively to CLAR). Hence, shark species with larger CFAR and more symmetric tails (low CLAR) tended to be faster-moving and have higher average speeds. This relationship demonstrates the opportunity to use tail shape as an easily measured trait to index shark swimming speed to broader trait-based analyses of ecological function and extinction risk.

Antioxidant Activity of Fermented Red Bean Extract on Sperm Quality of Mice Exposed to Cigarette Smoke

Smoking has a negative effect on fertilization as it decreases sperm quality. The current research aimed to investigate the effect of fermented red bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) extract on sperm motility, viability, and plasma membrane integrity of white mice (Mus musculus) exposed to cigarette smoke. The red beans were subjected to a 36-hour fermentation process using Rhizopus spp. Then, methanol was extracted by maceration method for 24 hours until maceration was obtained. In this study, 25 male white mice aged 3 months were randomly divided into 5 groups of 5 mice. Group C (negative control) was given 0.5 mL of carboxymethyl cellulose natrium (CMC Na) 1% solution orally without unfiltered cigarette smoke exposure, and group C+ (positive control) was given 0.5 mL of CMC Na 1% solution orally and unfiltered cigarette smoke exposure. Treatment groups T1, T2, and T3 were orally given fermented red bean extract at doses of 26 mg/kg Body weight (BW), 52 mg/kg BW, and 104 mg/kg BW, respectively, and then were exposed to unfiltered cigarette smoke. For 36 days, treatment groups (except the negative control) were subjected to the inhalation of smoke from an unfiltered cigarette containing a nicotine dose of 2.2 mg. The exposure period lasted for 20 minutes each day. Each group was put into a cigarette smoke-exposing box. The sperm motility (observing the forward movement of spermatozoa), the sperm viability (examining the color of the sperm head), and the sperm plasma membrane integrity (observing the tail shape using the hypoosmotic swelling test) were then evaluated. The findings indicated significant differences in sperm motility, viability, and plasma membrane integrity of each group with positive control. A dose of 104 mg/kg BW of fermented red bean extract had the best potential to maintain sperm motility (70%), viability (82.13%), and plasma membrane integrity (61.93%) of mice exposed to unfiltered cigarette smoke.

Numerical Analysis of Bioinspired Tails in a Fixed-Wing Micro Air Vehicle

Bird tails play a key role in aerodynamics and flight stability. They produce extra lift for takeoff and landing maneuvers, enhance wing functions and maintain stability during flight (keeping the bird from yawing, rolling and pitching, or otherwise losing control). This paper investigates the use of bioinspired horizontal stabilizers for Micro Air Vehicles (MAVs) involving a Zimmerman wing-body geometry. A selection of five tail shapes of the main types existing in nature is presented, and a parametric analysis is conducted looking into the influence of the most relevant tail geometric parameters to increase the longitudinal static stability of the vehicle. Based on the parametric study, a smaller subset of candidate tail designs are shortlisted to perform a detailed aerodynamic analysis. Then, steady RANS CFD simulations are conducted for a higher-fidelity study of these candidate tail designs to obtain an optimum of each tail type. The criterion for selection of the optimum tail configuration is the maximum aerodynamic efficiency, CLCD , as well as a high longitudinal static stability. The squared-fan tail provides the highest aerodynamic efficiency while maintaining a high longitudinal stability of the vehicle. In conclusion, this paper provides an innovative study of improving longitudinal stability and aerodynamics through the implementation of bioinspired horizontal stabilizers in vehicles with these characteristics.

Diversity of plant‐parasitic nematodes (PPNs) associated with medicinal plants in Vietnam, Vietnamese PPN checklist and a pictorial key for their identification

AbstractPlant‐parasitic nematodes (PPNs) are one of the most damaging pests to plants and are able to cause significant damage to all parts of plants, including stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and roots. Studies on the diversity, host range, distribution and identification methods of PPNs are therefore vital in order to create a basis for management. This current study represents the first dedicated investigation of PPNs from medicinal plants in Vietnam, focusing on the diversity of nematodes associated with 23 different plant species. In combination with a literature review of PPNs in Vietnam, this work has resulted in an updated list of 217 PPN species belonging to 40 genera, 15 families and three orders and also provides a pictorial online key for the identification of 52 most common and important PPN genera of the world. This key is based on the most crucial diagnostic features of PPN females, including female body shape, cuticle, labial shape, cephalic framework, stylet, stylet base, pharynx, median bulb, pharyngeal gland, vulva, tail shape and phasmid. Pictorial representations of these genera and their diagnostic characters are included in the browser‐based key to benefit users from all levels in nematology, be they beginners or experts.

Coevolutionary maintenance of forked tails and song in hirundines (Aves: Hirundininae)

Both conspicuous plumage ornamentation and song are well‐known examples of sexually selected traits, but their interrelationship is not well known, perhaps in part because of confounding factors, including interspecific variation in ecology, habitat, morphology, and type of ornamentation. Here, using a phylogenetic comparative approach and the 69 species with available information (i.e. 96% of all 72 species), I examined the evolutionary relationship between forked tails and the presence/absence of song in hirundines (Aves: Hirundininae). Hirundines have similar ecology (e.g. aerial insectivores, social monogamy, and biparental provisioning), morphology (e.g. syrinx with nearly complete bronchial rings), and plumage ornamentation (i.e. a sexually selected forked tail), which provides a unique opportunity to examine the evolutionary associations between plumage ornamentation and song. In particular, hirundines have repeatedly lost their ornamentation, forked tails, setting up a condition to test their association with the evolutionary gain/loss of their simple song. After controlling for phylogeny and covariates, I demonstrated that song was less likely to be found in species with forkless tails than in species with forked tails. Two correlates of tail shape, sexual dimorphism in the overall plumage characteristics as a well‐known proxy of sexual selection and incubation type as a measure of extrapair mating opportunity, were not positively related to the presence or absence of song, indicating the importance of forked tails, rather than their correlates. The analysis of the correlated evolution of discrete characters further supported the correlated evolution of the two traits, in which forked tails and song are maintained together and less likely to be lost under the presence of each other. The current study provided macroevolutionary support for the integrated use of visual and acoustic courtship traits.

Visceral stromal sarcoma in a dog: Case report

Visceral stromal sarcoma is a tumor that may cause no symptoms and, when it does, symptoms are unspecific. The tumor is usually an incidental finding, as it is detected while treating unrelated conditions. In this study, we aimed to highlight the importance of complementary exams in diagnosing stromal sarcoma in dogs. A nine-year-old Lhasa Apso dog was admitted into a veterinary hospital with a distended abdomen and decreased defecation. Ultrasound and hematological exams were requested. The hematology test revealed thrombocytosis, neutrophilia, and monocytosis. The ultrasound exam showed the spleen with increased dimensions. Presence of a neoformation occupying the entire left and right mesogastric abdominal topography was observed, apparently originating in the splenic tail, with irregular and coarse shape, mixed echogenicity, vascularized in some portions, and with cavitary areas and irregular walls in others, with anechoic content and echogenic dots in suspension measuring across the vascularized and cavitary portions. Associated with the formation, the mesentery and peritoneum were visible with a slight increase in echogenicity and coarse echotexture. These findings suggested that initial treatment should be surgical, which confirmed that the tumor did not originate in the spleen but in the mesentery. The tumor was removed, and an end-to-end anastomosis was performed at the site the tumor was adhered to. The tumor was taken for a biopsy and multiple nodular mass fragments were found, together measuring 10.0 × 9.0 × 2.5 cm. The inner surface of fragments of the fragments was observed to be whitish-beige, with yellowish areas, smooth and irregular. Biopsy confirmed a diagnosis of visceral stromal sarcoma and the patient was referred to an oncologist. Surgery was the most appropriate treatment in this case due to the size of the tumor, which could compromise the function of other systems. The complementary exam was critical in determining the diagnosis and deciding on the best course of action. In veterinary clinics where the complementary exams are not available, this case could have gone unnoticed.

Unveiling the meiobenthic community structure of Prydz Bay, Antarctica during austral summer

Meiobenthos are bottom-dwelling aquatic invertebrates having a size range of 63–500 μm. They play a pivotal role in ecosystem functioning, biogeochemical and trophic nutrient cycling. Due to the presence of Antarctic Circumpolar Current and steep gradient in nutrients and temperature, many taxa of the Southern Ocean (SO) show diverse biodiversity patterns in comparison to other deep sea areas of the world. Over the years, several Indian SO Expeditions have been carried out in the Indian sector of SO (ISSO), but this is a pioneer attempt to unveil the meiobenthic community structure and their functional diversity pattern from Prydz Bay (Indian sector of Southern Ocean), Antarctica. Meiobenthic community structures were investigated in eight different sampling sites along with their vertical profiling from the Prydz Bay during the austral summer 2020. Total meiofaunal abundance ranged from 24 to 521 indv. 10 cm-2, with the highest abundance recorded at station 23 and the lowest at station 9. A total of 9 meiobenthic taxa were found from this eco-region, with the highest percentage being the free-living marine nematodes as metazoan taxa. A total of 86 free-living nematode species were identified, where Sabatieria was the most common genus and represented by eleven species. Several univariate and multivariate analyses deciphered a distinct spatial variation in the meiobenthic community structure. Sediment texture and depth were the most significant environmental variables in shaping nematode assemblages. Biological Trait Analysis was performed using a total of 24 traits in 5 categories to unravel the functional diversity of free-living marine nematodes. The most dominant morphotypes were slender body shape, conical tail shape, dotted cuticle pattern, and non-selective deposit feeders with colonizing abilities of 2 (c–p score 2, in a scale from 1 to 5). Maturity Index (MI) and Index of Trophic Diversity (ITD) were highest in stations 15 and 32, respectively. RLQ approach with fourth-corner analysis was used to decipher the relationship between traits and environmental parameters. The RLQ analysis revealed the positive association of non-selective deposit feeder and slender body-shaped nematodes with higher water depth. The characterization of meiobenthic (especially nematode) communities in the context of taxonomic and functional attributes could help to evaluate the ecological status of ISSO. Further long term monitoring is also needed to get a comprehensive idea about their role in benthic ecosystem functioning in the milieu of global climate change.

Phytonematode on Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merrill) GP3 Clone With Symptoms of Pineapple mealybug wilt-associated virus (PMWaV)

Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr) is one of Indonesia’s important fruit commodities. Indonesia became the world’s fourth-largest pineapple producer in 2020. The monoculture cultivation system can lead to the continuous presence of pests and diseases in plantation areas. Mealybug wilt disease is caused by Pineapple mealybug wilt-associated virus (PMWaV) and its thought to be associated with phytomatodes. This study aims to determine the type of phytomatodes in pineapple plants with three health degrees: healthy plants, moderate symptoms, and severe symptoms. The soil and roots were sampled at 3, 5, 13, and 14 MAP (Month after Planting). Nematodes were extracted from the soil using the flotation-centrifugation method, while the root samples were extracted using the mist chamber method. Identification of nematode morphology was based on anterior (mouth and stylet shape), posterior (tail shape and reproductive organs), and the type of annulation or nematode cuticle surface. Seven genera of phytomatodes were identified from soil and root samples: Pratylenchus spp., Rotylenchulus spp., Meloidogyne spp., Helicotylenchus spp., Crinonemoides spp., Tylenchus spp., and Rotylenchus spp.. The dominant phytonematodes in the soil samples were Rotylenchulus spp. (66.67/100 ml of soil), while Pratylenchus spp. predominated in the roots (58.33/10 g of roots). Based on the three degrees of plant health, the phytonematodes that dominated the soil samples were Rotylenchulus spp. on the health degree of healthy and moderate symptoms, and Meloidogyne spp. dominate the sample at severe symptoms. Pratylenchus spp. dominated the root samples at healthy and severe symptoms, while Rotylenchulus spp. predominate in moderate symptomatic samples.

Morphometric traits and stepwise regression of indigenous sheep in southwestern region, Ethiopia

This research was carried out to characterize differences in morphometric features and assess the effectiveness of various linear body measures in forecasting the live weight of local sheep grown in Bench Sheko zone, southwestern Ethiopia. Purposive followed by random sampling procedures were used, to choose the potential samples. Qualitative trait, body weight, and linear body measurements were taken from 660 sheep. Plain (69.8%) and patchy (16.7%) coat color patterns were predominant in both districts. The bulk of the sheep in the research locations had narrow tails, short hair, horned males, dark red coat colors, Cylindrical and turned up at the tip tail shape, straight head and back profile, and sloping rump profile. Live weight and linear body measurements are significantly influenced by age, sex, sex-age interaction, and location. The mean body weight, heart girth, wither height, body length, ear length, tail length, rump height, rump length, rump width, and scrotal circumference were, 28.4 ± 0.15 cm, 75.5 ± 0.18 cm, 64.0 ± 0.12 cm, 62.8 ± 0.14 cm, 11.1 ± 0.06 cm, 28.2 ± 0.20 cm, 64.8 ± 0.12 cm, 20.8 ± 0.05 cm, 16.6 ± 0.06 cm and 26.1 ± 0.16 cm respectively. Heart girth was the best correlated with the sheep of different age class in both the districts. The greatest predictor of body weight (BW) was heart girth (HG) along with other linear body measurements. Therefore, HG was found to be the most significant factor influencing the bulk of the changes in BW, indicating that it could be utilized as a valid estimator for the sheep breed investigated. Genetic improvement must be prioritized since indigenous sheep in the study area have a large body frame.

PEA Signal Simulation Using Multiple Viscoelastic Relaxation Model for Determination of Acoustic Attenuation and Velocity Dispersion

Acoustic attenuation in polymer insulators prevents the accurate determination of space charge profiles measured by pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) measurements. A PEA signal simulation is developed on the basis of a multiple viscoelastic relaxation model, which can determine acoustic attenuation and sound velocity dispersion in polymer insulators. To implement the multiple relaxation model, we use an analogy between the viscoelastic and dielectric relaxations. The Kelvin–Voigt model is used as a single relaxation model, and the Cole–Cole model is used as a multiple relaxation model. The simulation based on the Cole–Cole model as a multiple relaxation model can accurately reproduce measured PEA signals. The distortion of a PEA measured space charge profile due to acoustic attenuation and velocity dispersion is also discussed. The charge profile calculated using the multiple relaxation model is in good agreement with the peak value, width, and tail shape obtained in experiments.

Short Warm Distribution Tails Accelerate the Increase of Humid‐Heat Extremes Under Global Warming

AbstractHumid‐heat extremes threaten human health and are increasing in frequency with global warming, so elucidating factors affecting their rate of change is critical. We investigate the role of wet‐bulb temperature (TW) frequency distribution tail shape on the rate of increase in extreme TW threshold exceedances under 2°C global warming. Results indicate that non‐Gaussian TW distribution tails are common worldwide across extensive, spatially coherent regions. More rapid increases in the number of days exceeding the historical 95th percentile are projected in locations with shorter‐than‐Gaussian warm side tails. Asymmetry in the specific humidity distribution, one component of TW, is more closely correlated with TW tail shape than temperature, suggesting that humidity climatology strongly influences the rate of future changes in TW extremes. Short non‐Gaussian TW warm tails have notable implications for dangerous humid‐heat in regions where current‐climate TW extremes approach human safety limits.

Carbon dredge-up required to explain the Gaia white dwarf colour–magnitude bifurcation

ABSTRACT The Gaia colour–magnitude diagram reveals a striking separation between hydrogen-atmosphere white dwarfs and their helium-atmosphere counterparts throughout a significant portion of the white dwarf cooling track. However, pure-helium atmospheres have Gaia magnitudes that are too close to the pure-hydrogen case to explain this bifurcation. To reproduce the observed split in the cooling sequence, it has been shown that trace amounts of hydrogen and/or metals must be present in the helium-dominated atmospheres of hydrogen-deficient white dwarfs. Yet, a complete explanation of the Gaia bifurcation that takes into account known constraints on the spectral evolution of white dwarfs has thus far not been proposed. In this work, we attempt to provide such a holistic explanation by performing population synthesis simulations coupled with state-of-the-art model atmospheres and evolutionary calculations that account for element transport in the envelopes of white dwarfs. By relying on empirically grounded assumptions, these simulations successfully reproduce the bifurcation. We show that the convective dredge-up of optically undetectable traces of carbon from the deep interior is crucial to account for the observations. Neither the convective dilution/mixing of residual hydrogen nor the accretion of hydrogen or metals can be the dominant drivers of the bifurcation. Finally, we emphasize the importance of improving theoretical models for the average ionization level of carbon in warm dense helium, which governs the shape of the diffusive tail of carbon and in turn the predicted amount of dredged-up carbon.

Nematode functional traits and community structure change from river to the terrestrial border in Segara Anakan Mangrove, Indonesia

Abstract. Maharning AR, Ardli ER, Prabowo RE. 2023. Nematode functional traits and community structure change from river to the terrestrial border in Segara Anakan Mangrove, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 2434-2446. We intended to explore the spatial distribution of nematode functional traits and community structure in Segara Anakan Mangrove, Indonesia. Samples were retrieved from 14 stations, extending from the river to the area adjacent to terrestrial forest. We used taxonomic and functional trait identification, covering body shape, length, tail shape, feeding type, and life history as independent traits, and combined traits by collecting traits describing individual nematodes. The principal component analysis suggested that predatory or omnivorous or long-size nematodes mainly inhabited stations adjacent to the terrestrial forest but were unclear for the mid-stations. There were 29 combined traits and 38 genera of nematodes observed. The detrended correspondence analysis revealed that nematode compositional changes from the river to the terrestrial adjacent area were clearer for the combined traits and nematode genera. Seven combined traits and 12 genera inhabited only the particular stations of the study site. The common nematodes were slender, 1-2 mm long, elongated filiform tails, non-selective deposit feeders, and very tolerant to pollutants, which lived in almost all stations (92.86%). The genus relative abundance (>10%) included Anoplostoma, Eubostrichus, and Chromadorina. The results suggest that distance from the river might regulate the habitability of nematodes, in which nematode functional traits play roles.

Onthodiplogaster japonica n. gen., n. sp. (Rhabditida: Diplogastridae) isolated from Onthophagus sp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) from Japan

A diplogastrid nematode was isolated from a dung beetle, Onthophagus sp., collected from a rotten mushroom in Kyoto, Japan. The species is characterised by its cheilostomatal shape, separated into 12 narrow plates (rugae), deep stegostom, large ellipsoidal amphids, conical female tail and characteristic receptaculum seminis in the female. Based on its phylogenetic status and stomatal composition, the species is typologically similar to two other diplogastrid genera, Neodiplogaster and Mononchoides. The species can be distinguished from these two genera by the size and shape of the amphid (small pore in Neodiplogaster), female tail shape (long and filiform in Mononchoides) and presence of receptaculum seminis (absence in the two nominal genera), and is described as a monotypic member of a new genus, Onthodiplogaster japonica n. gen., n. sp. Observation of feeding behaviour suggested that O. japonica n. gen., n. sp. does not show clear stomatal dimorphism or polymorphism, which is found in its close relatives, but the species can feed on nematodes (predation), fungi and bacteria. This monomorphic omnivory possibly represents its habitat of dung and other rotten materials, where the environment is biologically divergent, and its condition changes rapidly.

Schistonchus pumilae n. sp. isolated from syconia of a creeper fig, Ficus pumila L. from the Japanese warm temperate zone

Summary A Schistonchus species was isolated from the syconia of the creeping fig, Ficus pumila, collected from Miyazaki, Japan. The nematode was considered an undescribed species based on its typological characters, molecular profiles (near full length of small subunit and D3 expansion segment of large subunit of RNA) and phylogenetic status inferred from these two loci. The new species is characterised by the presence of flagellate sperm, spicule possessing small condylus, triangular rostrum with bluntly pointed tip and clear dorsal and ventral limbs, structure and arrangement of male caudal papillae, i.e., presence of papilliform P3 and P3a and small and gland opening-like P4 (glandpapillae), relatively short post-uterine sac and female tail forming elongate conoid. It is phylogenetically close to S. hirtus. However, the new species is distinguished from other nominal Schistonchus species by its female tail shape forming elongate conoid, the structure and arrangement of male caudal papillae and several other typological characters. In addition, the host fig of the nematode, F. pumila, is a creeper fig species belonging to subgenus Synoecia (section Rhizocladus; subsection Plagiostigma), from which no fig-associated nematode has been reported so far, i.e., the present study is the first report of Schistonchus (and other syconia-inhabiting nematodes) from the Ficus subgenus Synoecia.

Early Scythian Spearheads with a Socket

Spears were the second most widespread (after the bow and arrows) weapon of the Scythian warriors. Now more than 1,000 iron spearheads and shafts are known. Some spears were 3 m or more long, i.e. were combat weapons. Spears in Scythia, in contrast to the eastern nomads, the Sauro-Sarmatians and the Saka, were a popular weapon, among both ordinary warriors and the elite. Scythian spears, first of all, their tips, have been studied well. However, some of them have features that need to be explained. That is the presence of horizontal ridges around the ends of the sockets of the spearheads, which were not primarily intended for decoration. Few such tips have been found so far in the Ukrainian Forest-Steppe. They belong to the Scythian archaic period, and more precisely to the period from the second half of the 7th to the beginning of the 6th centuries BC. In author’s opinion, the ridges on spear sockets had a utilitarian purpose: they served to securely fasten tassels, possibly in the shape of horse tails, or special badges that were prototypes of future flags. A similar tradition arose among the nomads of Central Asia as early as the middle-second half of the 2nd millennium BC and then it had spread throughout the Eurasian region and during later periods. The spears with bunchuks in the shape of horse or wolf tails have undoubtedly experienced evolution: at first they were symbols of tribal and military unity, over time they began to play the role of a prestigious social marker – an attribute of military leaders of different levels. As a rule, notable Scythian warriors were buried in the graves where such spearheads were found. Apparently, spears with tassels indicate that their owners were the heads of certain military contingents. Given the synchronism of the mentioned burials with the period of the Scythian campaigns to the East, the appearance of similar spears with tassels among the Scythians due to the Assyrian influence cannot be ruled out. In any case, spears with tassels are attested on the reliefs of Assyria, although of an earlier time.