Tail Region Research Articles

The scaly skin of the abelisaurid Carnotaurus sastrei (Theropoda: Ceratosauria) from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia

The integument of the theropod dinosaur Carnotaurus sastrei from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina is here described in detail for the first time. The scaly skin of this abelisaurid is the most completely preserved of any theropod and the only example of this form of integument known outside of Tetanurae (excluding footprints). The skin is preserved in the shoulder, thoracic, tail and, possibly, neck regions and consists of medium to large (20–65 mm in diameter) conical feature scales surrounded by a network of low and small (<14 mm) non-imbricating basement scales separated by narrow interstitial tissue. Contrary to previous interpretations, the feature scales are randomly distributed and neither form discrete rows nor show progressive variations in their size along parts of the body. They also show little difference in morphology along the body, although their apices are variously positioned in different body parts. Conversely, the basement scales vary from small and elongated, large and polygonal, and circular-to-lenticular in the thoracic, scapular, and tail regions, respectively. Given the presumed active lifestyle of Carnotaurus and the necessity of shedding excess heat, particularly at large body sizes (>1000 kg), we speculate that the skin may have played a vital role in thermoregulation; a role consistent with integument function in extant mammals and reptiles.

Health status of cultured catla (Gibelion catla) in Hill tracts region of Bangladesh

A study was carried out for a period 8 months from March 2020 to October 2020 to observe the health status of cultured catla (Gibelion catla) in three Upazilas viz., Khagrachari Sadar, Ramgarh and Mahalchari upazila of Khagrachari district through clinical procedures. Data were collected through personal contact, sampling, questionnaire interview and discussions with key informants. Clinically, Fish from Vhaibonchara and Perachara at Khagrachari Sadar Upazila, Patachara at Ramgarh Upazila were found to be healthy during summer. During rainy season, catla of Mahalchari Upazila were affected with dropsy like clinical signs where major signs were swollen of abdomen, removal of scales and superficial injury. Tail and fin rot affected catla were collected from Ramgarh Upazila having erosion of fins and tail and the presence of white spots in fin and tail region. Cultured catla in rainy season were more affected than those of summer season. However, catla of summer season had reduced clinical changes than those of rainy season. From clinical and pathological point of view healthy catla were noticed in summer and moderately infected in rainy season. It could be mentioned that production and health status of catla were increased in summer season of Khagrachari Sadar area compared with other areas and season. During the study period water temperature were ranged between 23°C to 35°C in summer and 23°C in rainy season. The highest pH was 8.2 ± 0.20 recorded from Mobachari of Mahalchari in summer and the lowest was 6.5 ± 0.25 from the Perachara of Khagrachari Sadar Upazila. Thus necessary measures need to be taken especially during rainy season.

De novo transcriptome profile of two earthworms Lampito mauritii and Drawida calebi during regeneration

Earthworms have remarkable ability to regenerate its tail and head region. However the list of genes expressed in this regeneration process has been less explored baring a few species. The current study involves the de novo transcriptome sequencing of intact tail and regenerating tail (15 day post amputation) of earthworms belonging to two different genera Lampito mauritii (Kinberg, 1867) and Drawida calebi (Gates, 1945). This study contains one de-novo and one reference based transcriptome analysis each from one genus of two earthworm genera. From a total of 119.92 million (150 × 2) reads, 112.95 million high quality adapter free reads were utilized in analysis. Assembly of high-quality reads was performed separately for Lampito mauritii (LM sample) and Drawida calebi (DC sample) that resulted in 66368 and 1,61,289 transcripts respectively. About 25.21% of transcripts were functionally annotated for DC sample and 38.27% for LM samples against Annelida sequences. A total of 239 genes were expressed exclusively in regenerated tissue compared to intact sample in DC whereas about 241 genes were exclusively expressed in regenerated tissue of LM compared to its intact sample. Majority of genes in Drawida and Lampito were dedicated to immune response, maintenance of cytoskeleton, resisting oxidative stress and promoting neuronal regeneration for cell-cell communication during tail regeneration.

Erratum: Neutron Spin Echo Spectroscopy as a Unique Probe for Lipid Membrane Dynamics and Membrane-Protein Interactions.

Erratum: Neutron Spin Echo Spectroscopy as a Unique Probe for Lipid Membrane Dynamics and Membrane-Protein Interactions.

Binding free energy calculation of human beta defensin 3 with negatively charged lipid bilayer using free energy perturbation method

Human β defensin type 3 (hBD-3) is a cationic peptide having strong antimicrobial activities even at high salt concentrations. The conserved sequence is believed to contribute to its unique antibacterial activities. To design novel drugs based on hBD-3, predicting the binding free energy contribution of each residue on hBD-3 with bacterial membrane is important. Firstly, the stable binding structure of hBD-3 dimer in analog form bound on POPG lipid bilayer was predicted using NAMD simulations, which was confirmed by RMSD, buried surface area, hydrogen bonds, distance map, and insertion depth map calculations. Then, free energy perturbation (FEP) method was applied to calculate the binding free energy of each residue by mutating it into Alanine. It was found that the positively charged residues on the tail region of hBD-3 contribute significantly to its binding with membrane. The result emphasized the importance of electrostatic interactions to hBD-3's binding with bacterial membrane.

Remodeling and activation mechanisms of outer arm dyneins revealed by cryo-EM.

Cilia are thin microtubule-based protrusions of eukaryotic cells. The swimming of ciliated protists and sperm cells is propelled by the beating of cilia. Cilia propagate the flow of mucus in the trachea and protect the human body from viral infections. The main force generators of ciliary beating are the outer dynein arms (ODAs) which attach to the doublet microtubules. The bending of cilia is driven by the ODAs' conformational changes caused by ATP hydrolysis. Here, we report the native ODA complex structure attaching to the doublet microtubule by cryo-electron microscopy. The structure reveals how the ODA complex is attached to the doublet microtubule via the docking complex in its native state. Combined with coarse-grained molecular dynamic simulations, we present a model of how the attachment of the ODA to the doublet microtubule induces remodeling and activation of the ODA complex.

A leptonic model for the [formula omitted]-rays coincident with the tail region of the supernova remnant G106.3+2.7

The supernova remnant (SNR) G106.3 + 2.7 has a comet-shaped morphology in radio with a head and an elongated tail, and a pulsar PSR J2229 + 6114 is located in the northern boundary of the head. Recently, γ-rays with energies range from GeV to 500 TeV spatially coincident with the tail region have been detected. We investigate whether the γ-rays can be produced by the high-energy electrons/positrons in a nebula powered by PSR J2229 + 6114. Using a one-zone model for the multiband emission from the nebula, the detected radio, X-ray and γ-ray fluxes can be well reproduced with the assumption that a fraction (∼0.12) of the spin-down luminosity is used to power the leptons in the emission zone. The particle spectrum has a break at the lorentz factor γ>108 mainly due to the radiative loss of synchrotron radiation, and the magnetic field strength in the emission zone can be constrained to be ∼4μ G. The result shows that the detected γ-ray spectrum can be well produced via IC scattering of the high-energy electrons/positrons in the nebula which is in the tail region of the remnant.

The Tails of Protein Kinase A.

Protein kinase A (PKA) is a holoenzyme consisting of a regulatory (R)-subunit dimer and two catalytic (C)-subunits. There are two major families of C-subunits, Cα and Cβ, and four functionally nonredundant R-subunits (RIα, RIβ, RIIα, RIIβ). In addition to binding to and being regulated by the R-subunits, the C-subunits are regulated by two tail regions that each wrap around the N- and C-lobes of the kinase core. Although the C-terminal (Ct-) tail is classified as an intrinsically disordered region (IDR), the N-terminal (Nt-) tail is dominated by a strong helix that is flanked by short IDRs. In contrast to the Ct-tail, which is a conserved and highly regulated feature of all PKA, PKG, and protein kinase C protein kinase group (AGC) kinases, the Nt-tail has evolved more recently and is highly variable in vertebrates. Surprisingly and in contrast to the kinase core and the Ct-tail, the entire Nt-tail is not conserved in nonmammalian PKAs. In particular, in humans, Cβ actually represents a large family of C-subunits that are highly variable in their Nt-tail and also expressed in a highly tissue-specific manner. Although we know so much about the Cα1-subunit, we know almost nothing about these Cβ isoforms wherein Cβ2 is highly expressed in lymphocytes, and Cβ3 and Cβ4 isoforms account for ∼50% of PKA signaling in brain. Based on recent disease mutations, the Cβ proteins appear to be functionally important and nonredundant with the Cα isoforms. Imaging in retina also supports nonredundant roles for Cβ as well as isoform-specific localization to mitochondria. This represents a new frontier in PKA signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: How tails and adjacent domains regulate each protein kinase is a fundamental challenge for the biological community. Here we highlight how the N- and C-terminal tails of PKA (Nt-tails/Ct-tails) affect the structure and regulate the function of the kinase core and show the combinatorial variations that are introduced into the Nt-tail of the Cα- and Cβ-subunits in contrast to the Ct-tail, which is conserved across the entire AGC subfamily of protein kinases.

Unravelling Melatonin's Varied Antioxidizing Protection of Membrane Lipids Determined by its Spatial Distribution.

The antioxidizing capability of membrane antioxidants is strongly affected by the submolecular regions of the membrane that they locate. However, the concurrent determination of their location in the membranes and the consequent antioxidizing effect remains difficult. Using our field-induced droplet ionization mass spectrometry methodology, here we show the rapid determination of the antioxidation effect and the spatial distribution of melatonin in POPC membranes. Melatonin effectively protects the membrane lipids against hydroxyl radicals originating from the Fenton reactions in the water phase but cannot protect the lipids against singlet oxygen generated by a lipophilic photosensitizer in the lipid tail region (oil phase). These varied antioxidizing behaviors indicate that melatonin dwells at the headgroup subregion of the membranes. We anticipate that the methodology in this study can be widely utilized in the screening of antioxidants' spatial distribution and antioxidizing efficiency, and eventually in designing novel antioxidants that could deliver specific functions.

Characterization of the Intramolecular Interactions and Regulatory Mechanisms of the Scaffold Protein Tks4.

The scaffold protein Tks4 is a member of the p47phox-related organizer superfamily. It plays a key role in cell motility by being essential for the formation of podosomes and invadopodia. In addition, Tks4 is involved in the epidermal growth factor (EGF) signaling pathway, in which EGF induces the translocation of Tks4 from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. The evolutionarily-related protein p47phox and Tks4 share many similarities in their N-terminal region: a phosphoinositide-binding PX domain is followed by two SH3 domains (so called “tandem SH3”) and a proline-rich region (PRR). In p47phox, the PRR is followed by a relatively short, disordered C-terminal tail region containing multiple phosphorylation sites. These play a key role in the regulation of the protein. In Tks4, the PRR is followed by a third and a fourth SH3 domain connected by a long (~420 residues) unstructured region. In p47phox, the tandem SH3 domain binds the PRR while the first SH3 domain interacts with the PX domain, thereby preventing its binding to the membrane. Based on the conserved structural features of p47phox and Tks4 and the fact that an intramolecular interaction between the third SH3 and the PX domains of Tks4 has already been reported, we hypothesized that Tks4 is similarly regulated by autoinhibition. In this study, we showed, via fluorescence-based titrations, MST, ITC, and SAXS measurements, that the tandem SH3 domain of Tks4 binds the PRR and that the PX domain interacts with the third SH3 domain. We also investigated a phosphomimicking Thr-to-Glu point mutation in the PRR as a possible regulator of intramolecular interactions. Phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PtdIns(3)P) was identified as the main binding partner of the PX domain via lipid-binding assays. In truncated Tks4 fragments, the presence of the tandem SH3, together with the PRR, reduced PtdIns(3)P binding, while the presence of the third SH3 domain led to complete inhibition.

PRIMUS: Comprehensive proteomics of mouse intervertebral discs that inform novel biology and relevance to human disease modelling

Mice are commonly used to study intervertebral disc (IVD) biology and related diseases such as IVD degeneration. Discs from both the lumbar and tail regions are used. However, little is known about compartmental characteristics in the different regions, nor their relevance to the human setting, where a functional IVD unit depends on a homeostatic proteome. Here, we address these major gaps through comprehensive proteomic profiling and in-depth analyses of 8-week-old healthy murine discs, followed by comparisons with human. Leveraging on a dataset of over 2,700 proteins from 31 proteomic profiles, we identified key molecular and cellular differences between disc compartments and spine levels, but not gender. The nucleus pulposus (NP) and annulus fibrosus (AF) compartments differ the most, both in matrisome and cellularity contents. Differences in the matrisome are consistent with the fibrous nature required for tensile strength in the AF and hydration property in the NP. Novel findings for the NP cells included an enrichment in cell junction proteins for cell–cell communication (Cdh2, Dsp and Gja1) and osmoregulation (Slc12a2 and Wnk1). In NP cells, we detected heterogeneity of vacuolar organelles; where about half have potential lysosomal function (Vamp3, Copb2, Lamp1/2, Lamtor1), some contain lipid droplets and others with undefined contents. The AF is enriched in proteins for the oxidative stress responses (Sod3 and Clu). Interestingly, mitochondrial proteins are elevated in the lumbar than tail IVDs that may reflect differences in metabolic requirement. Relative to the human, cellular and structural information are conserved for the AF. Even though the NP is more divergent between mouse and human, there are similarities at the level of cell biology. Further, common cross-species markers were identified for both NP (KRT8/19, CD109) and AF (COL12A1). Overall, mouse is a relevant model to study IVD biology, and an understanding of the limitation will facilitate research planning and data interpretation, maximizing the translation of research findings to human IVDs.

Nanostructural Characterization of Cardiolipin-Containing Tethered Lipid Bilayers Adsorbed on Gold and Silicon Substrates for Protein Incorporation

A key to the development of lipid membrane-based devices is a fundamental understanding of how the molecular structure of the lipid bilayer membrane is influenced by the type of lipids used to build the membrane. This is particularly important when membrane proteins are included in these devices since the precise lipid environment affects the ability to incorporate membrane proteins and their functionality. Here, we used neutron reflectometry to investigate the structure of tethered bilayer lipid membranes and to characterize the incorporation of the NhaA sodium proton exchanger in the bilayer. The lipid membranes were composed of two lipids, dioleoyl phosphatidylcholine and cardiolipin, and were adsorbed on gold and silicon substrates using two different tethering architectures based on functionalized oligoethylene glycol molecules of different lengths. In all of the investigated samples, the addition of cardiolipin caused distinct structural rearrangement including crowding of ethylene glycol groups of the tethering molecules in the inner head region and a thinning of the lipid tail region. The incorporation of NhaA in the tethered bilayers following two different protocols is quantified, and the way protein incorporation modulates the structural properties of these membranes is detailed.

Asymptotics of sample tail autocorrelations for tail-dependent time series: phase transition and visualization

SummaryIn this article we develop an asymptotic theory for sample tail autocorrelations of time series data that can exhibit serial dependence in both tail and non-tail regions. Unlike with the traditional autocorrelation function, the study of tail autocorrelations requires a double asymptotic scheme to capture the tail phenomena, and our results do not impose any restrictions on the dependence structure in non-tail regions and allow processes that are not necessarily strongly mixing. The newly developed asymptotic theory reveals a previously undiscovered phase transition phenomenon, where the asymptotic behaviour of sample tail autocorrelations, including their convergence rate, can transition from one phase to another as the lag index moves past the point beyond which serial tail dependence vanishes. The phase transition discovery fills a gap in existing research on tail autocorrelations and can be used to construct the lines of significance, in analogy to the traditional autocorrelation plot, when visualizing sample tail autocorrelations to assess the existence of serial tail dependence or to identify the maximal lag of tail dependence.

Implementation of Multivariate Exponential Power Distribution in Discrimination and Classification of Psychological Data and Other applications

Recent advances have shown that some multivariate psychological data are deviating from usual normal assumption either in the tails or kurtosis. Thereby, allowing the call for modelling of such data using more robust elliptically contoured density which includes the normal distribution as a special case. This allowed more flexibility at the kurtosis and tail regions, which is better in handling non-normality in data analysis and also lower the cost of misclassification. The present study employed a robust model for such cases in the context of discrimination and classification of multivariate psychological disorder data using multivariate exponential distribution as an underlining model. Parameters were estimated using the method of maximum likelihood estimation and the discrimination and classification were based on the log likelihood ratio approach. The resulting models relied solidly on the shape parameter, which regulate the tails and the kurtosis, thereby allowed flexibility. This method enable us to lower the cost of misclassification. Some other areas of applications were also considered in the paper.

A density extrapolation approach to estimate failure probabilities

This paper proposes a novel approach called the Density Extrapolation Approach (DEA) for efficient reliability analysis. It builds on the Subset Simulation (SS) approach and integrates density estimation with SS. The proposed approach leverages the ability of SS to effectively move towards and generate samples in the tail regions and the ability of density estimation to extrapolate into the tail regions. Instead of running all the SS levels, only the first several SS levels are run, and then density estimation is used to calculate the failure probability. Kernel density estimation (KDE) with boundary correction is used to accurately capture the different shapes of the target distribution and also address the boundary bias of regular KDE. To establish a smooth estimation of the target distribution in the tail regions, KDE with adaptive bandwidth is used. Since density estimation requires i.i.d. samples, instead of using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) that is typically used in SS, the modified rejection sampling algorithm with adaptive kernel sampling density (AKSD) is adopted to efficiently generate i.i.d. failure samples at each SS level. Results from illustrative examples validate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Evaluation of Deep Learning Instance Segmentation Models for Pig Precision Livestock Farming

In this paper, the deep learning instance segmentation architectures DetectoRS, SOLOv2, DETR and Mask R-CNN were applied to data from the field of Pig Precision Livestock Farming to investigate whether these models can address the specific challenges of this domain. For this purpose, we created a custom dataset consisting of 731 images with high heterogeneity and high-quality segmentation masks. For evaluation, the standard metric for benchmarking instance segmentation models in computer vision, the mean average precision, was used. The results show that all tested models can be applied to the considered domain in terms of prediction accuracy. With a mAP of 0.848, DetectoRS achieves the best results on the test set, but is also the largest model with the greatest hardware requirements. It turns out that increasing model complexity and size does not have a large impact on prediction accuracy for instance segmentation of pigs. DETR, SOLOv2, and Mask R-CNN achieve similar results to DetectoRS with a parameter count almost three times smaller. Visual evaluation of predictions shows quality differences in terms of accuracy of segmentation masks. DetectoRS generates the best masks overall, while DETR has advantages in correctly segmenting the tail region. However, it can be observed that each of the tested models has problems in assigning segmentation masks correctly once a pig is overlapped. The results demonstrate the potential of deep learning instance segmentation models in Pig Precision Livestock Farming and lay the foundation for future research in this area.

Influence of environmental enrichment on circulating white blood cell counts and behavior of female turkeys

Under commercial conditions turkeys are housed in large groups in poorly structured environments. This leads to stress and subsequently to pecking and cannibalism. Environmental enrichment is suggested to reduce stress and feather pecking, thus leading to an increase of the overall flock health. However, the effect of increasing age on the use of enrichment elements and on the behavior repertoire as well as its correlation with health parameters has scarcely been studied. Therefore, our objective was to investigate the influence of environmental enrichment on the behavioral repertoire and on health parameters of turkeys. In 3 consecutive trials, female turkeys were housed up to 12 wk either in an unstructured (control group) or enriched environment (EE group) featuring elevated plateaus at different levels (“turkey tree”). Behavior parameters, clinical health, and immune parameters were determined at selected time points. The percentage of birds using the turkey tree increased with age up to 55 to 77% at 22 to 30 d post hatch (dph). Thereafter, the number of birds located on the turkey tree decreased to 25 to 32% at 73 to 79 dph. Feather pecking and fighting was significantly lower in the EE group compared to the control group in 2 and 3 trials, respectively (P < 0.05). The integrity of feathers and integument, scored in the head/neck, wing, and tail regions was repeatedly better in the EE birds compared to control birds at most investigated time points (P < 0.05), suggesting a reduction in stress related aggression by the use of the turkey tree. Head pecking, running and flying activity, foraging, and preening were overall comparable between the EE and the control group (P > 0.05). Humoral immunity as determined by vaccination-induced anti-Newcastle disease virus antibody titers was not affected by the turkey tree use. The flow cytometric evaluation of blood monocyte and T-lymphocyte numbers showed no repeatable difference between control and EE groups. Interestingly, compared to the control groups, EE birds displayed significantly higher numbers of circulating MHC class II+ lymphocytes and lower numbers of thrombocytes at various time points compared to controls (P < 0.05). This study provides clear evidence that environmental enrichment with plateaus not only leads to an altered behavioral repertoire but also modifies some of the investigated immune parameters, implying that EE may have a modulatory effect on turkeys’ immunity and overall fitness. Further studies are needed to understand the correlation between behavior and health parameters in birds more closely.

The role of the envelope protein in the stability of a coronavirus model membrane against an ethanolic disinfectant.

Ethanol is highly effective against various enveloped viruses and can disable the virus by disintegrating the protective envelope surrounding it. The interactions between the coronavirus envelope (E) protein and its membrane environment play key roles in the stability and function of the viral envelope. By using molecular dynamics simulation, we explore the underlying mechanism of ethanol-induced disruption of a model coronavirus membrane and, in detail, interactions of the E-protein and lipids. We model the membrane bilayer as N-palmitoyl-sphingomyelin and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoylphosphatidylcholine lipids and the coronavirus E-protein. The study reveals that ethanol causes an increase in the lateral area of the bilayer along with thinning of the bilayer membrane and orientational disordering of lipid tails. Ethanol resides at the head-tail region of the membrane and enhances bilayer permeability. We found an envelope-protein-mediated increase in the ordering of lipid tails. Our simulations also provide important insights into the orientation of the envelope protein in a model membrane environment. At ∼25 mol. % of ethanol in the surrounding ethanol-water phase, we observe disintegration of the lipid bilayer and dislocation of the E-protein from the membrane environment.

Comparison of genomic and antigenic properties of Newcastle Disease virus genotypes II, XXI and VII from Egypt do not point to antigenic drift as selection marker.

Newcastle disease (ND), caused by avian orthoavulavirus type-1 (NDV), is endemic in poultry in many regions of the world and causes continuing outbreaks in poultry populations. In the Middle East, genotype XXI, used to be present in poultry in Egypt but has been replaced by genotype VII. We investigated whether virus evolution contributed to superseding and focussed on the antigenic sites within the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) spike protein. Full-length sequences of an NDV genotype VII isolate currently circulating in Egypt was compared to a genotype XXI isolate that was present as co-infection with vaccine-type viruses (II) in a historical virus isolated in 2011. Amino acid differences in the HN glycoprotein for both XXI and VII viruses amounted to 11.7% and 11.9%, respectively, compared to the La Sota vaccine type. However, mutations within the globular head (aa 126-570), bearing relevant antigenic sites, were underrepresented (a divergence of 8.8% and 8.1% compared to 22.4% and 25.6% within the protein domains encompassing cytoplasmic tail, transmembrane part and stalk regions (aa 1-125) for genotypes XXI and VII, respectively). Nevertheless, reaction patterns of HN-specific monoclonal antibodies inhibiting receptor binding revealed differences between vaccine-type viruses and genotype XXI and VII viruses for epitopes located in the head domain. Accordingly, compared to Egyptian vaccine-type isolates and the La Sota vaccine reference strain, single aa substitutions in 6 of 10 described neutralizing epitopes of HN were found. However, the same alterations in neutralization sensitive epitopes were present in old genotype XXI as well as in newly emerged genotype VII isolates. In addition, isolates were indistinguishable by polyclonal chicken sera raised against different genotypes including vaccine viruses. These findings suggest that factors other than antigenic differences within the HN protein account for facilitating the spread of genotype VII versus genotype XXI viruses in Egypt.

Towards Measuring the Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution of a Single Heated Particle

The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a hallmark of statistical physics in thermodynamic equilibrium linking the probability density of a particle’s kinetic energies to the temperature of the system that also determines its configurational fluctuations. This unique relation is lost for Hot Brownian Motion, e.g., when the Brownian particle is constantly heated to create an inhomogeneous temperature in the surrounding liquid. While the fluctuations of the particle in this case can be described with an effective temperature, it is not unique for all degrees of freedom and suggested to be different at different timescales. In this work, we report on our progress to measure the effective temperature of Hot Brownian Motion in the ballistic regime. We have constructed an optical setup to measure the displacement of a heated Brownian particle with a temporal resolution of 10 ns giving a corresponding spatial resolution of about 23 pm for a 0.92 μm PMMA particle in water. Using a gold-coated polystyrene (AuPS) particle of 2.15 μm diameter we determine the mean squared displacement of the particle over more than six orders of magnitude in time. Our data recovers the trends for the effective temperature at long timescales, yet shows also clear effects in the region of hydrodynamic long time tails.