Table Olive Production Research Articles

Industrial Improvement for Naturally Black Olives Production of Manzanilla and Arauco Cultivars

The purpose of this study was to investigate, at an industrial scale, the effect of air and calcium chloride (CaCl2) incorporation during naturally black olives fermentation of cv. Manzanilla and cv. Arauco in order to improve product quality related to surface color and firmness of the fruit. Basic parameters of the fermentative processes carried out in each treatment were monitored, and commercial quality of the final product was ascertained. The results indicated a general improvement of the surface color of aerobically processed fruits with lower L* values (darker color) for both cultivars. The effect of adding CaCl2 at the beginning of fermentation had a significant positive effect on hardness in Manzanilla fruits, regardless of fermentative system used. Arauco olives, however, improved texture only when CaCl2 and aeration was used simultaneously. No differences in caloric values of fruits between treatments were found. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS The production of table olives is an important economic activity in Midwestern areas of Argentina, where elaboration at industrial scale of naturally black olives is performed under anaerobic conditions. The result of this processing is an economic loss because of deterioration of the fruit during industrialization and disparity of final product quality. The main goal of this investigation was to improve quality attributes of the product by the incorporation of air and the addition of CaCl2 in the brine. The improvement in surface color and texture of naturally black olives obtained under the new process conditions is promising for use in large-scale production and makes table olive industry more competitive in demanding markets.

Valuable nutrients and functional bioactives in different parts of olive (Olea europaea L.)-a review.

The Olive tree (Olea europaea L.), a native of the Mediterranean basin and parts of Asia, is now widely cultivated in many other parts of the world for production of olive oil and table olives. Olive is a rich source of valuable nutrients and bioactives of medicinal and therapeutic interest. Olive fruit contains appreciable concentration, 1–3% of fresh pulp weight, of hydrophilic (phenolic acids, phenolic alchohols, flavonoids and secoiridoids) and lipophilic (cresols) phenolic compounds that are known to possess multiple biological activities such as antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antidyslipidemic, cardiotonic, laxative, and antiplatelet. Other important compounds present in olive fruit are pectin, organic acids, and pigments. Virgin olive oil (VOO), extracted mechanically from the fruit, is also very popular for its nutritive and health-promoting potential, especially against cardiovascular disorders due to the presence of high levels of monounsaturates and other valuable minor components such as phenolics, phytosterols, tocopherols, carotenoids, chlorophyll and squalene. The cultivar, area of production, harvest time, and the processing techniques employed are some of the factors shown to influence the composition of olive fruit and olive oil. This review focuses comprehensively on the nutrients and high-value bioactives profile as well as medicinal and functional aspects of different parts of olives and its byproducts. Various factors affecting the composition of this food commodity of medicinal value are also discussed.

EFFECT OF LEAF-TO-FRUIT RATIO AND GIRDLING ON GAS EXCHANGES, FRUIT GROWTH AND CARBOHYDRATE CONTENTS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF FRUIT DEVELOPMENT OF OLEA EUROPAEA L. 'PICHOLINE'

ISHS XXVIII International Horticultural Congress on Science and Horticulture for People (IHC2010): Olive Trends Symposium - From the Olive Tree to Olive Oil: New Trends and Future Challenges EFFECT OF LEAF-TO-FRUIT RATIO AND GIRDLING ON GAS EXCHANGES, FRUIT GROWTH AND CARBOHYDRATE CONTENTS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF FRUIT DEVELOPMENT OF OLEA EUROPAEA L. 'PICHOLINE'

Effect of MAP and vacuum sealing on sensory qualities of dry-salted olive

The ‘Gemlik’ olive, grown in Turkey, is the main variety used in the production of commercial table olives. The aim of the present work was to determine the effect on sensory qualities of dry-salted olives of the ‘Gemlik’ cultivar packed with vacuum sealing or modified atmosphere packaging and stored at 4 or 20°C. Storage temperature did not have a significant effect on the sensory profile (p>0.05). However, with the exception of the color attribute, somewhat higher overall scores were given to samples stored at 4°C. In both vacuum sealing and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) samples stored at 4°C, the lack of oxygen and dipping the olives in 10 ppm chlorine solution before dry-salting, prevented the growth of yeast and mold and therefore both rancidity and softness attributes scored higher points by panelists.

Physical and Chemical Changes during the Maturation of Gordal Sevillana Olives (Olea europaea L., cv. Gordal Sevillana)

A series of physical and chemical changes occur as olives mature on the tree, and these changes are important for the production of oil and table olives. The aim of this study was to increase the understanding of the maturation process of Gordal Sevillana olives, to optimize harvest timing, and to determine the most appropriate harvesting and post-harvesting processing methods. During maturation, the olive size, flesh/pit ratio, and oil content increased, with a maximum oil content of 72 g kg(-1) (wet weight). Changes in the fatty acid composition are reported. Levels of both total sugars and total phenolic compounds slightly decreased over the maturation period; however, we observed that these compounds were continually being synthesized until full black maturity. The optimal harvest time for the production of Gordal Sevillana as Spanish-style green olives occurred immediately prior to the color change from green to turning color, at which point the sugar levels and flesh/pit ratio were at maximum levels.

Lipolytic activity of the yeast species associated with the fermentation/storage phase of ripe olive processing

Ripe olives account for ca. 30% of the world's table olive production. Fruits intended for this type of product are preserved in an aqueous solution (acidic water or brine) for several months, where they may undergo a spontaneous fermentation. Enterobacteriaceae and lactic acid bacteria were not detected in the present survey during storage. Thus, the work focused on studying the yeast microflora associated with the ripe olive storage of Manzanilla and Hojiblanca cultivars in acidified brines. A total of 90 yeast isolates were identified by means of molecular methods using RFLP analysis of the 5.8S-ITS rDNA region and sequencing of the D1/D2 domains of the 26S rDNA gene. The two most important species identified in both cultivars were Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia galeiformis, which were present throughout the storage period, while Candida boidinii was detected during the later stages of the process. The species Pichia membranifaciens was detected only in the early stages of the Hojiblanca cultivar. The lipase assays performed with both extracellular and whole cell fractions of the yeast isolates showed that neither of the S. cerevisiae and P. galeiformis species had lipase activity, while the P. membranifaciens isolates showed a weak activity. On the contrary, all C. boidinii isolates gave a strong lipase activity. Change in olive fat acidity was markedly higher in the presence of the yeast population than in sterile storage, indicating that lipases produced by these microorganisms modify the characteristics of the fat in the fruit.

Assessment of Slovenian table olives produced by traditional technology

Table olives are prepared from the sound fruits of varieties of the cultivated olive tree ( Olea europaea L.) that are chosen for their production of olives whose volume, shape, flesh-to-stone ratio, fine flesh, taste, firmness and ease of detachment from the stone make them particularly suitable for processing. The world production in the crop year 2006/2007 is estimated at 1.8 million tons of table olives and in the last fifteen years it has constantly increased. Most of the Slovenian Istria table olive production is based on a modification of the Spanish style. Results of qualitative and quantitative sensory assessments of two olive cultivars, ‘Storta’ and ‘Istrska belica’, are presented. Sensory characteristics were determined after four and six months of fermentation. Texture differences between the two production systems were revealed. Significant decrease in hardness was determined after six months of fermentation with initial alkaline treatment. The effect of cultivar type was also evident. After ...

Assessment of growth behaviour, yield, and quality parameters of some olive (Olea europaea) cultivars in Turkey

Olive (Olea europaea) is one of the oldest cultivated species in the Mediterranean basin and it is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region. In this study, we determined several phenological, morphological, and pomological characteristics of a number of olive cultivars when grown in Hatay province in the eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey. The 21 cultivars examined had their origins in Italy, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey. The earliest flowering was observed in ‘Gemlik’ and ‘Silifke yaglik’ on 4 May whereas the latest flowering was in ‘Memeli’, ‘Domat’, and ‘Savrani’ on 10 May. ‘Gemlik’ and ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ produced the highest cumulative yield over a 4‐year period. The largest fruit were from ‘ Ascolana’, averaging 6.72 g whereas ‘Kilis yağlik’ (2.05 g), ‘Nizip yağlik’ (2.33 g), and ‘Meski’ (2.43 g) had the smallest fruit. The flesh comprised the highest fraction of total fruit weight in ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ (86.4%), ‘Gemlik’ (86.4%), ‘Edincik su’ (86.3%), ‘Hojiblanca’ (86.1%), and ‘Halhali’ (86.0%). The highest oil content was in ‘Kilis yaglik’ (31.2%) and ‘Savrani’ (29.3%). Based on our results, ‘Gemlik’ and ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ are suggested for table olive production in the Hatay region whereas ‘Memecik’, ‘Kilis yaglik’, and ‘Sari ulak’ are the most suitable for oil production.

SSR analysis demonstrates that olive production in the southern Marmara region in Turkey uses a single genotype

The southern Marmara region in Turkey was surveyed to determine the olive cultivars that are used for olive production. Genetic diversity analysis using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers indicated that the cultivar Gemlik is the major olive cultivar grown in this region, while other olive cultivars are grown only for use as pollinators of Gemlik or for growers' own exotic consumption. Although the quality of Gemlik is widely accepted in Turkey, its tendency toward alternate bearing is a major drawback. Twenty-four genotypes were selected within the cultivar Gemlik because of their tolerance to alternate bearing. These selected genotypes have the same SSR alleles as Gemlik, making them good candidates for developing a Gemlik olive with reduced alternate bearing. About 8% of samples did not share the same SSR alleles with Gemlik, though these genotypes were identified as Gemlik by the growers. Some other standard cultivars that are grown in other regions of Turkey were mistakenly called Gemlik in this region, probably due to the popularity of this cultivar in the southern Marmara region. In conclusion, as indicated by SSR analysis, Gemlik has become the standard cultivar in this region; future research should be focused on techniques to improve the production and quality of table olives and olive oil from this cultivar.

New methods are transforming table olive and olive oil production in California

New methods are transforming table olive and olive oil production in California

Olive Oil: History, Production, and Characteristics of the World's Classic Oils

The true origin of the olive is not known but is speculated to be Syria or possibly sub-Saharan Africa. For more than 6000 years, the cultivated olive has developed alongside Mediterranean civilizations and is now commercially produced on more than 23 million acres (9.4 million ha) in the Mediterranean basin. New plantings also exist in California, Chile, Argentina, South Africa, and Australia. Various nonscientific selection processes created a multitude of different cultivars. Many villages in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa feature distinct varieties. However, it is also common to see the same cultivars with different names and, in some cases, different cultivars with the same name. This is currently being sorted out with DNA identification. The olive tree requires some chilling; tolerates hot, dry conditions; does not like moisture during bloom, and actually produces better with some stress. As a result, olives were traditionally relegated to lands where little else would survive. For thousands of years olives were grown primarily for lamp oil, with little regard for culinary flavor. World production of table olives is now about 1.5 million t/year. The “California Style” black table olive is virtually unknown outside the United States, and this very mild-flavored olive is largely used on pizzas. Elsewhere, table olive recipes are as varied as the villages in the Mediterranean region. Oil styles are also varied, and most olive fruit (≈16 million t/year) is processed into oil. There are about 19 classic styles of olive oil produced in the world, primarily based on specific varieties grown in different regions. In some cases oils are made with a blend of regional varieties. Defective olive oil is common worldwide. The author discusses six of the world's most influential olive oil varieties ‘Picual’, ‘Coratina’, ‘Koroneiki’, ‘Arbequina’, ‘Frantoio’, and ‘Leccino’; covers some horticultural history of oil olive cultivation and processing; and describes the most current trends toward superhigh-density plantings and automated continuous oil processing.

Segmentation and Private Branding: A Case in the Global Table Olive Industry

The industry of olive and olive oil has a sizeable weight in Andalusia since the ancient times. In the period of Roman Betica, the industry was the economic base of some very influential families in the arena of high politics. Hadrian, the emperor, was born in a wealthy family with interests in the trade of these products. In 2006 the production of table olives in Andalusia was the 23 percent of the world total. This case study was carried out when the company surveyed joined the PIPE program: a collaborative scheme of the Spanish promotion authorities (ICEX) to encourage SME exports.One of the first issues dealt with was the structure of the Spanish olive export. The survey, carried out with data of Estacom, shows the stagnation in the export of bulk olives and the steady growth in the sales of packaged produce. This phenomenon of industrial shift is actually a pattern of the Spanish olive industry.The company business is the assaisonnement and wholesale of bulk processed table olive. This is a commodity global market with very few possibilities of differentiation and growth. In this context, the firm has created a joint venture for the production of packaged produce with a partner who is to provide marketing expertise (food FMMG).In face of the dominant power of the retailing industry, increasingly more concentrated, and the need to overcome high entrance barriers of branding investment, segmentation appears as the only sensible strategy. Taking into account its financial and human resources, the food service channel in Mitteleuropa, with private branding, seems to be the one with better prospects.

Use of solid residue from the olive industry

Research into finding new uses for olive products, particularly by-products of olive oil production, is of great relevance not only to the economy, but also to the environment, in the towns where olives are grown. A large number of research articles has been published dealing with the chemical composition of olives and olive oil; however, only a few studies have centered on isolating and identifying compounds in the olive leaf. In this article an overview of the present body of knowledge on the chemical composition of the olive leaf will be presented. Also to be discussed is the use of solid residue, namely, the olive leaf and the olive stone. Both of these types of residue result from olive oil and table olive production, and can be used as a renewable energy source, as well as to obtain high added-value compounds. The latter, bioactive compounds are directed towards the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and natural food supplements markets, all of which are currently highly receptive to products of natural origin.

Trends in olive fruit handling previous to its industrial transformation

Until the 1940s, when production economics and labor shortages became pressing, olives around the world were hand harvested. Despite 60 years of research, mechanical. There are two major reasons for this. First, trees over 20 years old are too tall and poorly structured for mechanical harvesting. Second, mechanical harvesting research for table olive production has not been sufficiently focused on the final goal, processed fruit quality. For oil olives, which are physiologically mature at harvest and require less removal force, advances in both trunk shaking and picker head technology are advancing rapidly. Also, as olive oil is enjoying a renaissance around the world new orchards are being planted in the hedgerows that facilitate mechanical harvesting. For table olives however, mechanical harvesting is still in the developmental stage. The research being done now, unlike earlier work, focuses on the parallel goals of efficient fruit removal and final processed product quality. Within 10 years most olive oil orchards of suitable tree size and shape will be mechanically harvested. When table olives will be routinely harvested mechanically cannot be predicted.

Use of a lactic acid bacteria starter culture during green olive (Olea europaea L cv Ascolana tenera) processing

AbstractAmong the Italian olive germplasm, ‘Ascolana tenera’ is one of the best varieties for table olive production. This research addressed the impact of different processing types (Greek‐style and Spanish‐style) on the fermentation and phenolic composition of olive fruit. In particular, the effects of a lactic acid bacteria (LAB) starter culture on the fermentation of naturally green olives processed according to the traditional Greek method were studied. Results revealed that Spanish‐style processing produced a dramatic loss of total phenolics, while natural olive processing favoured a higher retention of biophenols. Oleoside 11‐methylester, a phenol‐related compound, and hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, vanillic acid, 3,4‐dihydroxyphenylglycol, oleuropein and oleuropein aglycons, as the main phenols, were detected in olive fruit. More interestingly, this research indicated that inoculation with LAB affected the pH, total acidity, microbial profile and palatability of olives. Olives fermented with the LAB starter culture were perceived by panellists to be less bitter and more aromatic than those spontaneously fermented. Thus the use of LAB inoculants during olive fermentation could be applied with the currently available technology. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry

Biotechnology of olive fermentation of ‘Galega' Portuguese variety

‘Galega' is the main Portuguese olive variety providing the greatest percentage of table olive production from homemade and industrial methods. In this work a better understanding of the fermentation involved in both methods is intended. Yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) constitute the microflora acting in olive fermentation, with Pichia membranaefaciens being the dominant yeast specie present throughout the process. LAB develop their activity mainly along the second fermentation stage where Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus pentosus were isolated and identified, as well as Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Pediococcus pentosaceus . Results of a chemical analysis have shown the effectiveness of both homemade and industrial fermentation methods. Nevertheless, the chemical composition of the brines from homemade samples was more similar than those from the industrial ones. Remarkable differences were found in the phenolic compound profile mainly on the final fermentation stage. The amount of volatile compounds has enhanced on the same phase in both methods and some differences were found between them. Sensorial analysis has shown the best results obtained through the homemade method.

Perspectives of the Australian olive industry

This paper includes information on the historical aspects of commercial olive growing in Australia and personal experiences encountered in working for over 40 years in the Australian olive industry. Suitable land is available in southern Australia for olive growing. Early olive plantings were established at a number of sites in New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia, Victoria and to a lesser extent in other Australian states. Early commercial olive groves had limited impact and success. A resurgence of interest in olive growing occurred with post Second World War migration to Australia where new Australians came from southern European countries. These new settlers were familiar with olives and olive oil. Most olive products consumed by Australians are imported from southern Europe. With the recognition of the Mediterranean diet by Australians, olive oil has become more popular and substantial olive groves have been planted. Both olive oil and table olive production in Australia is increasing, with an emphasis on quality products. Research and development at the commercial level has focussed on efficient harvesting for quality fruit.

Olive biophenols: novel ethnic and technological approach

Biophenols are monomeric dihydroxyaromatic moieties that are active non-nutrient components widely found in all plant-derived foodstuffs. Wizened Oinotria table olives (WOTO) and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), both typical ethnic products of the Mediterranean food culture, are especially rich in biophenols. Table olives can be prepared by traditional methods or by technological processing involving blanching, salting and drying of mature black olives. Olive quality depends on harvesting at mature stages, infestation conditions, firmness, triacylglycerol and biophenol content. The fruit firmness and biophenol content decreases during ripening and processing whereas the triacyiglycerol content increases. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to determine the triacylglycerol content in dried olive pulp, and to follow inoliation trends during the production of table olives and extra virgin olive oil. The DSC technique is fast, specific, reliable, uses no solvents and requires lower amounts of olive samples compared to conventional methods. After olive production, triacylglycerol quality was maintained without lipid deterioration. The total biophenol content was sufficiently large to ensure a shelf life and functional value for olive products. Biophenols in olive products demonstrate antioxidant, free-radical antagonism and anti-microbial activity, which are important for human health and well being. Technological innovation, such as EVOO from pitted olives, using ancient methods, can continue to be at the forefront of development in the olive agrifood chain. Creativity and sophisticated techniques will provide new perspectives for olive manufacturing, based on typical regional and ethnic products. The nutritional, sensory and functional enhancement of traditional olive foods, offer the potential for improving human health and well being within the context of the Mediterranean diet.

Olive biophenols: biomolecular characterization, distribution and phytoalexin histochemical localization in the drupes

Olive biophenols (BP) comprise a major group of secondary metabolites that display a wealth of structural variety and a great diversity of important biological activities. Recently, an explosion of interest in the olive biophenol pathway has been observed which has been closely matched by related investigations into olivegrowing practices, for the production of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and table olives (TO). Major advances have been stimulated by multidisciplinary research on olive biophenol composition, histological distribution, and histochemical enzymatic localization of BPs to determine their biomolecular function, activated by native β-glucosidase on secoiridoid (seco) conjugates, such as oleuropein, which releases phytoalexins against pathogens.

Oven-dried table olives: textural properties as related to pectic composition

The effects of processing treatments on the microscopic structure, pectic fractions and firmness of ripe olives (Olea europaea L Cassanese variety), processed by the 'Ferrandina' method for oven-dried table olive production, were studied. The process included a first heating step, a salting step and a final oven-drying process. Scanning electron microscopic observations of olive tissue structure revealed that heat treatment was highly damaging, affecting the intercellular pectic substances and producing cell separation. Epicuticular waxes were barely affected and limited the shrivelling of the fruit during the oven dehydration process. The pectin content was higher in the oven-dried olives than in the fresh samples. The sodium hydroxide-soluble fraction was the main pectin fraction in the olive tissues. Its content decreased markedly after the heating step, while it increased after the oven dehydration step. The softening of the olive tissues increased after heat treatment, and a correlation was found between protopectin content and firmness. In oven-dried olives a firming of the olive tissues was observed due to the de-esterification of pectin and to its decreased solubility resulting from an increase in cell wall calcium bridging. # 2000 Society of Chemical Industry