Systems In South Asia Research Articles

Protecting ancient water harvesting technologies in India: strategies for climate adaptation and sustainable development with global lessons

IntroductionAncient water harvesting systems, such as those from the Indus Valley Civilization (~3500 BCE), have been vital for irrigation and climate resilience, especially in arid regions. One such prominent system in South Asia, called tank irrigation, initially thrived through community management but declined post-independence due to colonial policies and neglect in Sri Lanka and India. This study evaluates current policy frameworks and rehabilitation programs to enhance the resilience of these systems in India, develop strategies for their protection and adaptation to climate change, and integrate global lessons for sustainable development.MethodsA systematic meta-analysis of grey literature was conducted to aggregate data on policy constraints. Policy analysis involved detailed investigations of relevant documents, regulations, and comparative analyses of frameworks at regional and national levels. Pilot projects on tank rehabilitation were assessed through reported case studies and field surveys to gauge impact. Thematic analysis was used to explore the global potential of these systems in climate resilience and overall environmental sustainability.ResultsThe analysis showed that pilot projects for tank rehabilitation had limited success in achieving sustainability under current climate conditions. Tank irrigation systems are crucial for adapting to extreme weather, including floods, droughts, and heat waves, replenishing groundwater, reducing soil erosion, and ensuring reliable water supplies. Traditional water harvesting technologies support 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including clean water access, hunger reduction, gender equality, and climate action. Integrating AI and machine learning in water management benefits disaster response, while eco-tourism aids system maintenance and cultural awareness.DiscussionThe study underscores the need for policy reforms to enhance tank rehabilitation and institutional arrangements. It calls for increased beneficiary participation and constitutional recognition of current practices. Strategic, national-scale assessments and resilience targets are recommended to improve the effectiveness of such water harvesting systems in mitigating natural hazards and enhancing environmental services.

Spatial Distribution of Cropping Systems in South Asia Using Time-Series Satellite Data Enriched with Ground Data

Spatial Distribution of Cropping Systems in South Asia Using Time-Series Satellite Data Enriched with Ground Data

Informing climate-health adaptation options through mapping the needs and potential for integrated climate-driven early warning forecasting systems in South Asia-A scoping review.

Climate change is widely recognised to threaten human health, wellbeing and livelihoods, including through its effects on the emergence, spread and burdens of climate-and water-sensitive infectious diseases. However, the scale and mechanisms of the impacts are uncertain and it is unclear whether existing forecasting capacities will foster successful local-level adaptation planning, particularly in climate vulnerable regions in developing countries. The purpose of this scoping review was to characterise and map priority climate- and water-sensitive diseases, map existing forecasting and surveillance systems in climate and health sectors and scope out the needs and potential to develop integrated climate-driven early warning forecasting systems for long-term adaptation planning and interventions in the south Asia region. We searched Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus and PubMed using title, abstract and keywords only for papers focussing on climate-and water-sensitive diseases and explicit mention of either forecasting or surveillance systems in south Asia. We conducted further internet search of relevant national climate adaptation plans and health policies affecting disease management. We identified 187 studies reporting on climate-sensitive diseases and information systems in the south Asia context published between 1992 and 2024. We found very few robust, evidenced-based forecasting systems for climate- and water- sensitive infectious diseases, which suggests limited operationalisation of decision-support tools that could inform actions to reduce disease burdens in the region. Many of the information systems platforms identified focussed on climate-sensitive vector-borne disease systems, with limited tools for water-sensitive diseases. This reveals an opportunity to develop tools for these neglected disease groups. Of the 34 operational platforms identified across the focal countries, only 13 (representing 38.2%) are freely available online and all were developed and implemented by the human health sector. Tools are needed for other south Asian countries (Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan) where the risks of infectious diseases are predicted to increase substantially due to climate change, drought and shifts in human demography and use of ecosystems. Altogether, the findings highlight clear opportunities to invest in the co-development and implementation of contextually relevant climate-driven early warning tools and research priorities for disease control and adaptation planning.

A Critical Response to ‘Race, Caste and Christian Ethics: A Decolonial Proposal’

The colonial period of Christian expansion was plagued by practices and systems that exploited non-European indigenous populations for the endgame interests of enriching the treasuries of European imperial powers and promoting Eurocentrism. Anderson Jeremiah has written an important paper that explains how the concepts of race and the caste system in South Asia functioned in the context of colonial Christian expansion, and argues that postcolonial Christian actors should prioritise intentionally replacing dehumanising forms of missional activity with the four ethically decolonising paradigms of radical resistance, solidarity, hospitality, and joy in service of promoting racial justice in future global society. My response focuses on Jeremiah's ethical paradigm of hospitality, and engages with the challenge of applying this paradigm. In order for this hospitality paradigm to be applied in ways that lead to optimal missional outcomes, it must answer several questions, especially those linked to the existence of contesting hospitality-focussed frameworks and sociocultural attitudes endorsed by contemporary Christian agents and communities whose norms of hospitality appear radically different.

Limiting global warming to 2 °C benefits building climate resilience in rice-wheat systems in India through crop calendar management

CONTEXTRice-wheat rotation system (RWS) is the most important food production system in South Asia and contributes approximately 50% of the total food consumed in India. Building climate resilience of RWS in the context of global warming is critical to sustainably feeding the ever-increasing population in India. Prior research has shown a large potential for climate change adaptation in rice and wheat production through cropping calendar adjustment, but the climate resilience of rice-wheat systems remains elusive. OBJECTIVEThe study aims to project coupled changes in the growing seasons of rice and wheat in RWS under global warming, and evaluate climate resilience of RWS productivity in India through crop calendar adjustment. METHODSWe combined an improved Environmental Policy Integrated Climate model with satellite remote sensing data to investigate the coupling of rice and wheat growing seasons in RWS in India. Then, we shifted crop calendars in RWS to simulate optimal planting dates and potential yield changes of rice and wheat under contrasting global warming scenarios. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSWe show that farmers will face a yield trade-off between monsoon rice and dry-season wheat under high greenhouse gas emission scenarios (4 °C warming by the end of the century) in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) due to a tighter coupling of crop growing seasons in RWS. Early planting for both monsoon rice and dry-season wheat is recommended in the current climate, but the strategy does not apply to future climate change scenarios in the IGP. Limiting global warming below 2 °C by the end of the century is likely to improve RWS productivity by 14% in irrigated systems and 21% in rainfed systems, and keep sufficient maneuvering space for resilient planting strategies in the future. SIGNIFICANCEOur analysis emphasizes that failure to fulfill the pledges of the Paris Agreement will result in not only higher crop damage but also more challenging climate adaptation planning in RWS in India.

Conservation tillage and fertiliser management strategies impact on basmati rice (Oryza sativa L): crop performance, crop water productivity, nutrient uptake and fertility status of the soil under rice-wheat cropping system.

The sustainability of paddy production systems in South Asia has recently been affected by a decline in soil health and excessive water usage. As a response to the global energy crisis, escalating costs of synthetic fertilisers, and growing environmental concerns, the utilization of organic plant-nutrient sources has gained considerable attention. Emerging adaptation technologies, including conservation tillage and innovative approaches to fertilizer management, present practical choices that can significantly contribute to the long-term preservation of soil fertility. The two year-long field experiment was completed in sandy loam soil during rainy (Kharif) seasons in 2019 and 2020 at the crop research centre farm of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agricultural & Technology, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh to analyze the impacts of different tillage establishment of the crop and its methodologies as well as integrated nutritional management approaches on rice growth, yield, productivity of water, nutrient uptake, and fertility status of soil under a rice-wheat rotation system. The experiment was set up in a factorial randomized block design and replicated three times in a semi-arid subtropical environment. The conventionally transplanted rice puddled (CT-TPR) grew substantially better taller plants, and higher dry matter buildup leads to increased yields than transplanted rice under raised wide bed (WBed-TPR). WBed-TPR plots had more tillers, LAI, CGR, RGR, and yield characteristics of the rice in two year study. CT-TPR increased grain yield by 4.39 and 4.03% over WBed-TPR in 2019 and 2020, while WBed-TPR produced the highest water productivity (0.44 kg m-3) than CT-TPR, respectively. The 100% RDF+ ZnSO4 25 kg ha-1 + FYM (5 t ha-1) + PSB (5 kg ha-1) + Azotobacter 20 kg ha-1 (N6) treatment outperformed the other fertiliser management practices in terms of crop growth parameters, yields of grain (4,903 and 5,018 kgha-1), nutrient uptake and NPK availability, organic soil carbon. Among the fertilizer management practices, with the direct applications of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), farm yard manure (FYM), phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB), Azatobactor and zinc worked synergistically and increased grain yields by 53.4, 51.3, 47.9 and 46.2% over their respective control treatment. To enhance rice productivity and promote soil health, the study suggests that adopting conservation tillage-based establishment practices and implementing effective fertilizer management techniques could serve as practical alternatives. It is concluded that the rice yield was improved by the inclusive use of inorganic fertiliser and organic manure (FYM). Additionally, the study observed that the combination of conventional puddled transplanted rice (CT-TPR) and N6 nitrogen application resulted in enhanced rice crop productivity and improved soil health.

Are wheat-based farming systems in South Asia feminizing?

This article pulls together the state of knowledge on the degree to which wheat-based systems in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, are feminizing. It is not yet possible to make definitive statements. However, it is clear that wheat-based systems are undergoing far-reaching changes in relation to “who does what” and “who decides.” There are some commonalities across all four countries. Intersectionalities shape women’s identities and abilities to exert their agency. Purdah is a cultural norm in many locations. Nevertheless, each country displays different meta-trends. In Nepal managerial feminization is increasing unlike in Pakistan. Women in Bangladesh spend the least time in field work whereas in other countries they are often strongly engaged. There are strong local variations within countries as well which we explore. Establishing the extent of feminization is challenging because studies ask different questions, operate at different levels, and are rarely longitudinal. Researchers often construct men as primary farmers, leading to a failure to find out what men and women really do and decide. This diminishes the value of many studies. Cultural perceptions of honor can make men respondents reluctant to report on women’s agency and women can be reluctant to claim agency openly. We provide suggestions for better research, and urge support to women as workers and decision-makers.

Sustainable Intensification of Cropping Systems under Conservation Agriculture Practices: Impact on Yield, Productivity and Profitability of Wheat

The continuous rice–wheat cropping system in South Asia has caused irreversible environmental damage, raising concerns about the long-term sustainability of the region’s agricultural systems. To address this issue, farm experiments were conducted for two successive years (2019–20 and 2020–21) to assess the impact of different cropping systems under conservation agriculture (CA) practices on the yield, productivity, and profitability of wheat. Results showed that the highest grain yield of wheat was observed in scenarios Sc6, Sc4, and Sc2, which involved full CA permanent-bed soybean (PB)–permanent-bed wheat (PB)–permanent-bed summer moong (PB), full CA permanent-bed maize (PB)–permanent-bed wheat (PB)–permanent-bed summer moong (PB), and partial CA puddled transplanted rice–Happy Seeder wheat–zero-till summer moong (ZT). Additionally, the highest irrigation water productivity (IWP), wheat grain macronutrient uptake, net return, and benefit–cost ratio (B:C ratio) were recorded under Sc6, full CA permanent-bed soybean (PB)–permanent-bed wheat (PB)–permanent-bed summer moong (PB) compared to farmers’ practice puddled transplanted rice (PTR)–conventional-till wheat–summer moong (Sc1) during both years. The system productivity also increased in scenarios Sc2, Sc4, and Sc6 (by 9.72%, 9.65%, and 14.14% in the first year and 10.68%, 14.14%, and 15.55% in the second year) compared to Sc1—farmers’ practice puddled transplanted rice (PTR)–conventional-till wheat–summer moong, Sc3—farmers’ practice fresh-bed maize (FB)–conventional-till wheat–summer moong, and Sc5–farmers’ practice fresh-bed soybean (FB)–conventional-till wheat (CT)–summer moong. The findings suggest that the conservation agriculture soybean–wheat–summer moong (Sc6) on permanent-bed cropping systems with inclusion legumes can be a potential option to enhance yield attributes, productivity, and profitability, as well as the sustainability of natural resources in the region while decreasing environmental footprints.

Reduced tillage and crop diversification can improve productivity and profitability of rice-based rotations of the Eastern Gangetic Plains.

Intensive rice (Oryza sativa)-based cropping systems in south Asia provide much of the calorie and protein requirements of low to middle-income rural and urban populations. Intensive tillage practices demand more resources, damage soil quality, and reduce crop yields and profit margins. Crop diversification along with conservation agriculture (CA)-based management practices may reduce external input use, improve resource-use efficiency, and increase the productivity and profitability of intensive cropping systems. A field study was conducted on loamy soil in a sub-tropical climate in northern Bangladesh to evaluate the effects of three tillage options and six rice-based cropping sequences on grain, calorie, and protein yields and gross margins (GM) for different crops and cropping sequences. The three tillage options were: (1) conservation agriculture (CA) with all crops in sequences untilled, (2) alternating tillage (AT) with the monsoon season rice crop tilled but winter season crops untilled, and (3) conventional tillage (CT) with all crops in sequences tilled. The six cropping sequences were: rice-rice (R-R), rice-mung bean (Vigna radiata) (R-MB), rice-wheat (Triticum aestivum) (R-W), rice-maize (Zea mays) (R-M), rice-wheat-mung bean (R-W-MB), and rice-maize-mung bean (R-M-MB). Over three years of experimentation, the average monsoon rice yield was 8% lower for CA than CT, but the average winter crops yield was 13% higher for CA than CT. Systems rice equivalent yield (SREY) and systems calorie and protein yields were about 5%, 3% and 6%, respectively, higher under CA than CT; additionally, AT added approximately 1% more to these benefits. The systems productivity gain under CA and AT resulted in higher GM by 16% while reducing the labor and total production cost under CA than CT. The R-M rotation had higher SREY, calorie, protein yields, and GM by 24%, 26%, 66%, and 148%, respectively, than the predominantly practiced R-R rotation. The R-W-MB rotation had the highest SREY (30%) and second highest (118%) GM. Considering the combined effect of tillage and cropping system, CA with R-M rotation showed superior performance in terms of SREY, protein yield, and GM. The distribution of labor use and GM across rotations was grouped into four categories: R-W in low-low (low labor use and low GM), R-M in low-high (low labor use and high GM), R-W-MB and R-M-MB in high-high (high labor use and high GM) and R-R and R-MB in high-low (high labor use and low GM). In conclusion, CA performed better than CT in different winter crops and cropping systems but not in monsoon rice. Our results demonstrate the multiple benefits of partial and full CA-based tillage practices employed with appropriate crop diversification to achieve sustainable food security with greater calorie and protein intake while maximizing farm profitability of intensive rice-based rotational systems.

The Radical in Ambedkar: Critical Reflections

The Radical in Ambedkar: Critical Reflections

Why are school systems in South Asia seriously under-performing?

Why are school systems in South Asia seriously under-performing?

Energy budgeting and carbon footprint of contrasting tillage and residue management scenarios in rice-wheat cropping system

Puddled transplanted rice followed by conventional till wheat, the most predominant cropping system in South Asia is unsustainable, highly energy intensive and leads to significant carbon equivalent emissions. Conservation agriculture (CA) practices like zero till dry direct seeded rice, zero till wheat, residue retention and diversified crop rotations have potential to improve productivity and reduce energy and carbon footprints. Therefore, we evaluated the energy and carbon relationships in rice-wheat cropping system under contrasting tillage and residue management scenarios with the aim to promote sustainable and energy efficient CA systems with lower C footprint. Treatments comprised of zero till dry direct seeded rice – zero till wheat (~double zero till) and zero till dry direct seeded rice – zero till wheat – zero till mungbean (~triple zero till) systems, with and without residue retention of preceding crop. Besides, conventional till (CT) rice (i.e. puddled transplanted rice) – CT wheat system (~CTRW), and conventional till rice – zero till wheat system were adopted as farmers’ practice control. Two-year pooled results highlighted that the zero till (ZT) systems led to consumption of substantially lower operational energy for land preparation (100 %), sowing (34–50 %) and irrigation (24–36 %) than conventional till system. The zero till direct seeded rice + mungbean residue – zero till wheat + rice residue – zero till mungbean + wheat residue system (~ZTRWMb+R) registered ~5 % lower rice yield but 16 % and 23 % higher wheat grain yield and system biomass yield, respectively over CTRW. This system incurred highest total input energy (157.4 × 103 MJ ha−1), having ~64 % of this energy shared from renewable crop residue, but had highest (11.3) energy use efficiency from non-renewable resources (fuel, fertilizers, machinery). In contrast, the zero till direct seeded rice – zero till wheat – zero till mungbean system without residue resulted in highest net energy returns, energy ratio, energy productivity and energy intensity. The ZTRWMb+R system led to 64 % lower yield scale C footprint (304 kg CO2-eq. t−1) compared to CTRW (848 kg CO2-eq. t−1) and had highest C efficiency, C sustainability index and C efficiency ratio. Selection/development of high yielding and biotic (mainly, nematodes) and abiotic (mainly, Fe deficiency) stress tolerant varieties for direct seeded rice would help reduce/bridge the yield gap with puddled transplanted rice and further enhance crop and biomass yields and energy productivity of CA based rice-wheat cropping system.

The optimization of conservation agriculture practices requires attention to location-specific performance: Evidence from large scale gridded simulations across South Asia

The ways in which farmers implement conservation agricultural (CA) practices – which entail reduced tillage, maintenance of soil cover, and crop rotations – varies considerably in different environments, farming systems, and by the intensity with which farmers administer management practices. Such variability requires an efficient tool to evaluate the cost-benefit of CA, to inform agricultural policymakers and development priorities to facilitate expanded use of CA under appropriate circumstances. Rice-wheat rotation is the principal production system in South Asia (SA). Research has shown that CA can be promising in this rotation because of improved irrigated water, energy, and labor use efficiencies, in addition to the reduction in atmospheric pollution and potentially long term improvements in soil quality. Yield responses to CA are however varying across studies and regions. With a nine-year rice-wheat CA experiment in Eastern Gangetic Plains of South Asia, this study parameterizes the Environmental Policy Climate (EPIC) model to simulate five CA and conventional managements on the RW cropping system. Information from geospatial datasets and farm surveys were used to parameterize the model at the regional scale, increasing the management flexibility and range of localities in the simulation. Yield potential of the CAs in the whole SA was thereby explored by utilizing the model with various management strategies. Our results demonstrate how geospatial and survey data, along with calibration by a long-term experiment, can supplement a regional simulation to increase the model's ability to capture yield patterns. Yield gains from CA are widespread but generally low under current management regimes, with varied yield responses among CAs and environments. Conversely, CA has considerable potential in SA to increase rice-wheat productivity by up to 38%. Our results highlight the importance of applying an adaptive definition of CA, depending on environmental circumstances, while also building the capacity of farmers interested in CA to apply optimal management practices appropriate for their environment. • We combine long term experiment and regional gridded crop modeling to evaluate CA in South Asia. • Yield consequence from CA differs between simulations with and without management optimization. • Rice-wheat productivity could increase by up 38% under CA with optimal management. • This approach could be used for other cropping systems to facilitate the application of CA.

Complementary feeding in South Asia: a multi-system analysis of the enabling environment and programme context

AimThe links between poor complementary feeding and child malnutrition in South Asia argue for greater attention to improving young children’s diets. This study examined the status of policy and programme actions to support complementary feeding across four systems in South Asia: food, health, social protection, and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH).MethodsWe conducted a review to assess the status of national policy and programme actions to improve complementary feeding in children aged 6–23 months in eight South Asian countries across four systems, including the comprehensiveness of the enabling environment and the geographic scale of programmes.ResultsAll countries have policy and programme commitments to improving complementary feeding; however, no country has a comprehensive set of legislation, policies, strategies, and plans that fully incorporate relevant global recommendations and guidance. The health system has the strongest enabling environment for complementary feeding, but the lack of supportive legislation, policies, strategies, and plans in other systems may hinder multisystem action. There are few examples of nationwide programmes to improve complementary feeding beyond the health system.ConclusionGovernments should mobilize their institutions and resources to enable a coherent and multisystem response to complementary feeding that addresses the gaps in legislation, policies, and programmes and the barriers and bottlenecks to implementation at scale, with a focus on the food, health, social protection, and WASH systems. Further operational research is needed on the factors and processes that enable multisystem action to secure nutritious, safe, affordable, and sustainable diets for young children in South Asia.

Impact of Safe Rock® Minerals, Mineral Fertilizers, and Manure on the Quantity and Quality of the Wheat Yield in the Rice-Wheat Cropping System.

Rice–wheat (RW) rotation is the largest agriculture production system in South Asia with a multifaceted role in maintaining the livelihood of people. The customary practices and indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers have culminated in the decline of its productivity and profitability during the past two decades, thus affecting the sustainability of wheat. Safe Rock® Minerals (SRM) is a multi-nutrient rich natural rock mineral with great potential to manage soil degradation, reducing the input of fertilizers, improving soil fertility, and plant health. Thus, a field trial was conducted at the research farm of ICAR—Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi from 2016 to 2018 to evaluate the impact of Safe Rock® Minerals (SRM) on biometric parameters, productivity, quality, and nutrient uptake by conventional wheat and System of Wheat Intensification (SWI) in the wheat–rice cropping system. The results indicate that SWI performed better in terms of growth, yield, and quality parameters than conventional wheat. Among nutrient management practices; the highest growth, yield, and yield attributes of wheat were achieved with the use of SRM application 250 kg ha−1 + 100% Recommended Dose of Fertilizer (RDF). SRM application also increased grain protein content significantly. In conclusion, the integrated use of SRM with organic manures can serve as an eco-friendly approach for sustainable wheat production.

Indian Perspectives on Consciousness, Language and Self: The School of Recognition on Linguistics and Philosophy of Mind by Marco Ferrante

Reviewed by: Indian Perspectives on Consciousness, Language and Self: The School of Recognition on Linguistics and Philosophy of Mind by Marco Ferrante Mrinal Kaul (bio) Indian Perspectives on Consciousness, Language and Self: The School of Recognition on Linguistics and Philosophy of Mind. By Marco Ferrante. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2021. Pp. vii + 156. Paperback £33.29, ISBN 978-1-003-05853-3. Indian Perspectives on Consciousness, Language and Self by Marco Ferrante explores theories of consciousness by examining the non-dual philosophy of Recognition mainly represented by the two philosophers Utpaladeva (c. 925-975 CE) and Abhinavagupta (c. 975-1025 CE), and also carefully concludes that the trajectory of their ideas have compelling influence from Bhartṛhari (c. 460-510 CE) and his commentator Helārāja (c. 980 CE). No philosophy ever evolves and develops in a void. No philosophical tradition or theory functions in oblivion. In the history of philosophy in South Asia, this is also true of the traditions that have staunchly stood up and rigorously argued for the ubiquity of consciousness. The dynamism of these traditions is represented by philosophers of language like Bhartṛhari and further continued by Buddhist philosophers like Vasubandhu (4th-5th CE), Dignāga (c. 480-540 C.E.), Dharmakīrti (c. 6th-7th CE), Śāntarakṣita (8th CE), Kamalaśīla (8th CE), and others, and then followed by non-dualist Vedāntins like Śaṅkara (8th-9th CE) and further developed by Śaivas like Utpaladeva and Abhinavagupta. The book clearly demonstrates the author's understanding of the original texts he is using and the philosophical purport that they exhibit. And it must be added that he has begun a significantly careful discourse in detail not only about the importance of Bhartṛhari, whom we have shamelessly ignored for too long, but also how he has played a significant role in the evolution of later philosophical systems in South Asia. This has been remarkably achieved by not only identifying the relevant portions in Utpaladeva and Abhinavagupta, on the one hand, but also locating the relevant portions of the texts and presenting the corresponding theses of the interlocutors like Bhartṛhari and Helārāja on another, while also presenting their translations in the appendix of the book. The book should be lauded for these reasons alone. The first chapter of the book maps a historical context of the tradition known as Pratyabhijñā ("Recognition") and highlights the significance not only [End Page 1] of Bhartṛhari but also of Buddhist Pramāṇavāda (roughly, the tradition of "epistemology") in the philosophical evolution of the Pratyabhijñā. The second chapter is an excellent summary of the background of the Buddhist doctrine of non-self from the early Buddhist sources and from Mark Siderits (2007), contextualizing the problem vis-à-vis Pratyabhijñā, though a deeper engagement with Pramāṇavāda would have been desirable. The third chapter begins evaluating the core issue of self-awareness (svasaṃvedana) as a moot philosophical problem between the Buddhists and the Śaivas, one in which memory is a fundamental point of dispute. This chapter also introduces Dignāga and Dharmakīrti. Towards the conclusion, however, I am not sure what exactly Ferrante means by "private" when he says "Utpaladeva and Abhinavagupta were explicitly saying that consciousness has a purely private, phenomenal dimension" (p. 82). (Also see pp. 7, 30, 42, 43, 46, 84.) For them, consciousness is subjective, phenomenal, but universal and not "private." The fourth chapter evaluates self-awareness (svasaṃvedana) with respect to Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla on the basis of Paul Williams (1998) and further moves on to contextualize the problem for Bhartṛhari and Pratyabhijñā. The fifth chapter is the core of the book, investigating the linguistic nature of consciousness according to Bhartṛhari and the Pratyabhijñā appropriation thereof. In the relatively shorter chapter six, by comparing qualia with camatkāra (a difficultto-translate term literally meaning 'wonderment') and camatkāra with vimarśa, Ferrante explains "how the belief in qualia (camatkāra) can coexist with a higher-order theory of consciousness (vimarśa)" (p. 87). The final, seventh, chapter moves towards making general comparisons and contrasts, arguing that "Utpaladeva's philosophy is best understood as a form...

Left behind? Internally migrating children and the ontological crisis of formal education systems in South Asia

ABSTRACT In-country migration is widespread in South Asia, and the region hosts the world’s largest number of out-of-school children. Yet the relationship between internal migration and inclusion in formal education has received only limited academic and policy attention. The Agenda 2030 pledge to leave no-one behind prompts us to argue that when it comes to migrating children, formal education systems in South Asia are in ontological crisis. Cases of mobile pastoralists and seasonal labour migrants illustrate that being ‘left behind’ is produced by intersecting norms of modernity, which formal education systems reproduce, via logics of rights, human capital and ‘terms of inclusion’. Formal education systems are antithetical to mobility-dependent livelihoods, discount situated learning, and perpetuate unequal social relations. ‘Alternative’ education has done little to contest these norms and their productions. Terming this an ‘ontological crisis’ signals both the disjuncture between realities and Agenda 2030’s moral exigencies, and the opportunity to act.

Factors contributing to farm-level productivity and household income generation in coastal Bangladesh's rice-based farming systems.

Large changes have taken place in smallholder farming systems in South Asia’s coastal areas in recent decades, particularly related to cropping intensity, input availability, climate risks, and off-farm activities. However, few studies have investigated the extent to which these changes have impacted farm-level crop productivity, which is a key driver of food security and poverty in rainfed, low-input, rice-based systems. The objective of this study was to conduct an integrated assessment of variables related to socioeconomic status, farm characteristics, and crop management practices to understand the major factors influencing crop productivity and identify promising leverage points for sustainable development in coastal Bangladesh. Using a panel survey dataset of 32 variables from 502 farm households located within polder (coastal embankment) and outside polder systems during 2005–2015, we employed statistical factor analysis to characterize five independent latent factors named here as Farming Challenges, Economic Status, Crop Management Practices, Asset Endowment, and Farm Characteristics. The factor Farming Challenges explained the most variation among households (31%), with decreases observed over time, specifically households located outside polders. Individual variables contributing to this factor included perceived cyclone severity, household distance to main roads and input-output markets, cropping intensity, and access to extension services. The most important factors for increasing crop productivity on a household and per unit area basis were Asset Endowment and Crop Management Practices, respectively. The former highlights the need for increasing gross cropped area, which can be achieved through greater cropping intensity, while the latter was associated with increased fertilizer, labor, and pesticide input use. Despite the importance of these factors, household poverty trajectory maps showed that changes in off-farm income had played the strongest role in improving livelihoods in this coastal area. This study can help inform development efforts and policies for boosting farm-level crop productivity, specifically through agricultural intensification (higher cropping intensity combined with appropriate and efficient use of inputs) and expanding opportunities for off-farm income as key pathways to bring smallholder households out of poverty.

Solar Home Systems in South Asia: Examining Adoption, Energy Consumption, and Social Practices

Renewable electricity generation from solar energy has rapidly increased in South Asia. This paper presents a systematic review of 79 scholarly papers on the topic of solar home system adoption, energy consumption, and social practices in South Asia. Using an intersectionality lens, the paper demonstrates that various categories of difference, such as gender, age, class, and ethnicity, intersect and shape the adoption of this technology in South Asia. Utilizing a social practice theory lens, the paper shows that solar home systems shape the spatial and temporal arrangements and practices of members of households that have adopted the technology, as well as their counterparts who have not. This technology has a practical but also symbolic function; the symbolic function and social meaning are derived from the economic and socio-cultural contexts. As this renewable energy technology is embedded in economic and socio-cultural contexts, people reconfigure it in creative ways to meet their everyday energy needs. The paper identifies research gaps and suggests future research agendas.

Soil Properties and Weed Dynamics in Wheat as Affected by Rice Residue Management in the Rice-Wheat Cropping System in South Asia: A Review.

The rice–wheat cropping system (RWCS) has substantially contributed in making India self-sufficient in food grain production; however, rice residue management is of great concern, threatening the sustainability of this system. Rice residue is invariably disposed of by farmers through open burning. In addition to environmental pollution, residue burning of rice also leads to loss of soil nutrients. One of the alternatives to overcome these problems and sustain the RWCS is managing the rice residues in the field itself. Rice residue retention has variable effects on agricultural pests (namely, weeds, insect pests, diseases, and rodents) in the RWCS. High weed infestation in the RWCS results in high consumption of herbicides, which leads to several ecological problems and evolution of herbicide resistance. The shift from intensive tillage to conservation tillage causes major changes in weed dynamics and herbicide efficacy. Incorporation of rice residue reduces weed density and helps in improving soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. Rice residue retention on the surface or mulching reduces weed density and the biomass of both grass and broadleaf weeds in wheat crop as compared to its removal. Long-term field studies involving the use of rice residue as a component of integrated weed management strategies are needed to be done in the RWCS.