System Development Efforts Research Articles

Early Diagnosis of MIS Implementation Failure: Promising Results and Unanswered Questions

Much of the research on MIS implementation which has been conducted in the past decade has focused on identifying and measuring the organizational characteristics which appear to be particularly conducive to either success or failure of system development efforts. While such research is useful in providing insight about the implementation problem, it provides little guidance for the management of ongoing implementation efforts. The study described in this paper attempts to address the implementation management question by exploring the use of MIS users' pre-implementation expectations about a system as indicators of the likely success of that system. System development efforts can be viewed as multi-stage processes. During the first of the stages, Definition, most of the key decisions about the system as the user will see it are made, e.g., system goals, scope, overall approach. The Definition stage, however, typically accounts for no more than 25% of the resources required for system development. Thus, the decisions which will have the greatest effect on the users' acceptance or rejection of a system are made prior to the bulk of spending on the project, and an assessment of the project's probability of success or failure should be possible at that time. The results of a number of implementation studies suggest that implementation failure is more likely when users hold unrealistic expectations about a system. Research in other areas, especially product evaluation and job satisfaction, also shows a connection between realism of expectations and outcomes (e.g., satisfaction). Thus, user expectations held at the end of the Definition stage might serve as early warning indicators of MIS implementation outcomes. If these expectations prove to be reliable indicators of subsequent success or failure, it would enable system developers to diagnose likely problems and to take corrective action at an early project stage. This paper reports on a longitudinal study of user expectations as predictors of project success or failure. The results strongly suggest that users who hold realistic expectations prior to implementation are more satisfied with the system and use it more than users whose pre-implementation expectations are unrealistic. While the results are encouraging, further research is necessary in a number of areas—e.g., better definition of key expectations, simpler tools for measuring expectations, proper timing of expectations measurement—before reliable instruments for measuring expectations in ongoing projects will be available. The paper outlines, however, some steps which can be taken now to help assure that potential system users develop realistic expectations.

Breaking the language barrier

The systems analyst and the user are not independent entities; each depends on the other. When communication problems get in their way, however, the relationship can turn adversary.The real problem in most system or program development efforts may be that English, left to itself, is too subtle, too open to personal interpretation, to be appropriate in the structured world of DP.Tom DeMarco shows how to impose limits on our native language so analysts, designers, programmers and users can safely use it to define what they are trying to develop. This week he starts by giving some hints on that most basic of DP jobs, setting up the system.

TACFIRE: A case history of a weapon system software development

The Tactical Fire Direction System (TACFIRE) is a computer based system for support of U.S. Army artillery units. This paper reviews the system requirements and traces the development history from 1959 to the present fielding of the first sets. Emphasis throughout is on software development aspects of the program. The study focuses on program management issues including contractual considerations that influenced the progress of the software and system development efforts. Lessons learned are identified along with areas recommended for careful review and considerations by program managers of software intensive systems. Material for this study was collected largely from existing documentation [Selected Acquisition Reports (SARs), Command Review and Assessment of Projects (RECAP's), and Historical Summaries] supplemented by extensive personal interviews with personnel currently and previously associated with the TACFIRE program, both on the government and contractor sides. In the interest of obtaining as much information as possible to make this a useful document, all interviews were conducted on a “not for attribution” basis. Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the author, and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Defense University, the U.S. Army, the Department of Defense, and other U.S. government agency, or any private organization.

Development Patterns for Decision Support Systems

Examples from a case-oriented survey of fifty-six decision support systems are cited to illustrate each of four implementation patterns that were observed in the sample. These four system development patterns are defined in terms of high or low degrees of (1) initiation by the user and (2) participation in the development process. A surprising finding is that systems initiated by users and implemented with their active participation account for less than one fourth of all cases. A qualitative analysis of the cases explains this finding by interpreting the four patterns in terms of six frequently observed system development situations, each of which has its own purpose and dynamics. Categorizing these situations under the headings built for, sold to, or forced upon, key questions and concerns for various stakeholders in system development efforts are cited. A concluding quandary for management involves the choice of a project portfolio that is neither too risky nor too safe.

Army Fiber Optic Program: An Update

Modernization of Army tactical communication systems has placed emphasis on meeting new digital data handling requirements. An all digital transmission facility will require new radio systems and substantially improved cable systems which can overcome present length-bandwidth limitations. These new digital systems must have, in addition, superior reliability, freedom from electromagnetic countermeasures, and be highly mobile. These requirements are driving the development of new distributed multiplexed radio systems and an intensive investigation into the utilization of fiber optic cable systems. Fiber optic cables have the required capabilities of: EMI, RFI, and crosstalk immunity, substantially reduced deployment weight and volume, and freedom from electromagnetic pulse effects. Recent developments in fiber technology have significantly reduced the risk associated with the use of fiber cable in a tactical field Army installation. However, there are some problems that need to be resolved before fiber optic systems can be fielded. This paper will discuss Army application areas, components and system development efforts directed toward fielding tactical fiber optic systems.

Redesign of Managerial Tasks: A Requisite for Successful Decision Support Systems

Developing and installing a computer-based system in an organization can have major impacts on tasks performed by participants in that organization. In recent years, an increasing share of systems development effort has been directed toward system to support managerial decision-making. These systems require a far greater degree of individual change than did earlier, clerical replacement systems. Successful implementation often requires changes in the users' views of their jobs. The demands that these systems place on the implementation process cause many standard development approaches to be inadequate. This article suggests some alternative approaches and points out the need for new tools.

Human Performance and Personnel Resource Data Store Design Guidelines

A survey was conducted within the Navy's research and development community to obtain information on user-perceived needs for human performance and personnel resource data to support system development efforts. Findings were to be used to develop guidelines for planning and developing a human resources data store system. Twenty-two activities were contacted: eighteen Navy activities and four industrial firms. Thirty-seven separate interview sessions were held involving 48 respondents. Principal data store guidelines identified concerned data validity and generalizability, retrievability, a priority need for design trade-off decision data, and a data format responsive to users with either behavioral or engineering backgrounds. Sixteen types of data were identified as required by system planners/managers, human factors specialists, and design engineers. Twenty guidelines were developed on data presentation formats and supporting information. The sets of guidelines may be used to develop a conceptual framework for a general data bank system which would identify and relate users, types of data, potential data sources, and program priorities.

High-level programming languages

In the development of computer systems for facilitating the data management activities of patient care (hospital information systems), powerful high-level programming languages are needed, which provide capabilities for integrated, multiuser, real-time information processing. The required features of systems to support such languages include variety of input techniques, rapid time response, and flexible data management organization, utilizing common data bases. The language orientation should be procedural, and should allow easy modification of programs. Since computer system development efforts must often occur on a modular basis, these capabilities need to be made available on relatively modest sized computer configurations.