Systematic Social Observation Research Articles

Women and urban wildmeat trafficking in the Republic of Congo

As a result of declining biodiversity and increasing rates of urbanization, the illegal urban wildmeat trade is projected to become an integral sector of the wildlife crime industry. Adequate assessment of urban wildmeat trafficking requires investigation into the roles and behaviors of individuals who engage in wildlife crimes. However, akin to much of wildlife crime literature, women's engagement within the urban wildmeat trade have received little investigation. The objectives of our investigation were to (1) explore relationships between women and wildlife products across the supply chain, and (2) determine whether a significant relationship exists between women and specific wildlife products. Through systematic social observations, we evaluate the gendered dimensions of urban wildmeat trafficking in the Republic of Congo between the urban centers of Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire. We place particular emphasis on species of conservation concern, namely great apes, African pangolins, and dwarf crocodiles. Results indicate that there are gendered variations at the species and the geographic level, indicating that women are sourcing and sending their products to different locations than men, and that women are specializing in trade of different species. We attest that urban wildmeat trafficking prevention strategies implement a gender-aware approach due to the unique ways that individuals engage with the industry and how that engagement is gendered.

A mixed methods comparison of adolescents' and researchers' observations of neighborhood characteristics in Latinx neighborhoods.

We used a convergent mixed methods research design to compare and contrast researchers' neighborhood environmental assessments collected using systematic social observations with adolescents' neighborhood environmental assessments collected by semi-structured interviews with US Mexican adolescents. Using qualitative methods, we found that adolescents sometimes observed the same neighborhood environmental features as researchers. They also sometimes observed different environmental features altogether; in both cases they sometimes layered on additional meaning making. Using mixed methods, we found that there was a high degree of overlap between researchers and adolescents in terms of agreement on the presence of neighborhood environmental features, including physical disorder, physical decay, street safety, and sociocultural symbols. Adolescents expanded upon these neighborhood environmental features with references to positive and negative affect and neighborhood environmental resources. This work highlights the shared and unique aspects of researcher versus adolescent observations and how both data sources are critical to understanding Latinx neighborhood environments.

Development of a systematic social observation tool for monitoring use of harm reduction supplies

BackgroundHarm reduction services such as safer injection supply distribution are essential to reducing morbidity and mortality among people who use drugs (PWUD); however, local use of harm reduction supplies (e.g., tourniquets, saline solution) is difficult to routinely and systematically monitor. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a systematic social observation tool designed to assess use of harm reduction supplies at the street block level. MethodsData collection took place on a random sample of 150 blocks located throughout the Kensington neighborhood of North Philadelphia from November 2021 to January 2022. We measured inter-rater reliability by two-way mixed-effects intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) with the consistency agreement definition and internal consistency reliability using Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega. Exploratory factor analysis with principal component extraction and promax rotation assessed internal consistency. We validated scales against locations of public syringe disposal boxes, a proxy measure for areas of concentrated drug use, using logistic regression. ResultsNaloxone canisters, syringe caps, saline and sterile water solution bottles showed the highest reliability (ICC≥0.7). Items also showed high internal consistency (alpha, omega>0.7). Exploratory factor analysis identified one, three-item scale with high internal consistency: syringe caps, vials, and baggies (alpha = 0.85; omega = 0.85)—all supplies used concurrently with drug injection but not discarded in syringe disposal boxes. Drug use (OR = 1.78, 95 % CI = (1.48, 2.23)), harm reduction (OR = 3.53, 95 % CI = (2.20, 6.12)), and EFA scales (OR = 1.85, 95 %CI = (1.51, 2.34)) were significantly and positively associated with being within walking distance (≤0.25 miles or 0.4 km) of a syringe disposal box. ConclusionThis study provides an efficient tool with high reliability and validity metrics to assess community uptake of harm reduction supplies designed for use by community organizations, policy makers, or other groups providing resources to PWUD.

Using systematic social observations to measure crime prevention through environmental design and disorder : in-situ observations, photographs, and google street view imagery

Using systematic social observations to measure crime prevention through environmental design and disorder : in-situ observations, photographs, and google street view imagery

Concept and challenges of a social media observatory as a DIY research infrastructure

This article describes the basic concept, ethical and legal considerations, technical implementation as well as resulting tools and data collections of the Social Media Observatory (SMO). Since 2020, the SMO is developed as an open science research infrastructure within the Research Institute Social Cohesion (RISC) in Germany. It focuses on (the support of) long-term monitoring of public communication on selected platforms and online news media to answer social science-related research questions. Based on systematically compiled lists of public speaker categories, such as parliamentarians or media organizations, it collects statistics as well as content data to study the German social media discourse in comparison to mass media. Aggregated results are published via interactive dashboards. Raw data is published as ID lists for reproduction or shared with researchers upon request. Following a do-it-yourself approach to infrastructure, the SMO further provides various tools, curated datasets, and documented workflows, for instance, to run thematic ad-hoc data collections. As a main feature, it maintains a curated knowledge base in wiki format to enable other researchers to perform systematic social media observations on their own.

Applying Video-Based Systematic Social Observation to Police Use of Force Encounters: An Assessment of De-Escalation and Escalation within the Context of Proportionality and Incrementalism

Although researchers have generated many studies related to police use of force, with an increasing focus on de-escalation, none have sought to systematically assess escalation, related factors, and the extent to which force usage may be considered appropriate from an objectively reasonable framework. Using video-based data (N = 540) from two agencies (Dallas and Smith County, TX) this study employs a Systematic Social Observation (SSO) methodology and incorporates an modified analytical tool (i.e., Resistance Force Comparative Scheme) to assesses de-escalation/escalation. The findings demonstrate that officers most commonly use proportional and incremental force during suspect encounters, neither de-escalating nor escalating. However, when officers do deviate, they are much more likely to escalate as opposed to de-escalate. Further, officers are more apt to use escalated force during proactive encounters, as well as when interacting with suspects who are male and impaired. Additionally, officers with a more negative demeanor (i.e., disrespectful) are more likely to use escalated force. Conversely, officers are less likely to use escalated force when backup officers are on scene, when there is more evidence of a crime present, and when interacting with older suspects. We discuss the training, policy, and research implications of this work, as well as the importance of conducting methodologically rigorous use of force studies within the framework of potential appropriateness.

Multi-Level Influences of Smoke-Free Policies in Subsidized Housing: Applying the COM-B Model and Neighborhood Assessments to Inform Smoke-Free Policies.

Smoke-free policies in multi-unit housing are associated with reduced exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS); however, attitudes toward comprehensive smoke-free policies among residents in subsidized multi-unit housing are unknown. In this mixed-methods study, we explored the socio-ecological context for tobacco and cannabis use and attitudes toward policies restricting indoor use of these products through interviews with residents (N = 134) and staff (N = 22) in 15 federally subsidized multi-unit housing in San Francisco, California. We conducted a geo-spatial and ethnographic environmental assessment by mapping alcohol, cannabis, and tobacco retail density using ArcGIS, and conducted systematic social observations of the neighborhood around each site for environmental cues to tobacco use. We used the Capability, Opportunity, and Motivation behavior (COM-B) model to identify factors that might influence implementation of smoke-free policies in multi-unit housing. Knowledge and attitudes toward tobacco and cannabis use, social norms around smoking, neighborhood violence, and cannabis legalization were some of the social-ecological factors that influenced tobacco use. There was spatial variation in the availability of alcohol, cannabis, and tobacco stores around sites, which may have influenced residents' ability to maintain smoke-free homes. Lack of skill on how to moderate indoor smoking (psychological capability), lack of safe neighborhoods (physical opportunity), and the stigma of smoking outdoors in multi-unit housing (motivation) were some of the barriers to adopting a smoke-free home. Interventions to increase adoption of smoke-free policies in multi-unit housing need to address the co-use of tobacco and cannabis and commercial and environmental determinants of tobacco use to facilitate smoke-free living.

Broken Windows and Community Social Control: Evidence from a Study of Street Segments

Objectives Broken windows theory identifies community social control as a central mechanism for controlling crime. In turn, controlling disorder is seen as the primary method that police or other government agents can use to strengthen community social controls. Our study examined the antecedents of informal community social control, measured as collective efficacy, at street segments. Methods This article leverages multi-wave primary data collection at 447 street segments in Baltimore, MD including official crime statistics, survey responses, physical observations, and systematic social observations. We used mixed-effects OLS regression models to examine antecedents of collective efficacy at the street-level. Results We find that social disorder and crime, rather than physical disorder, are the primary antecedents of collective efficacy at the street-level. We also find that fear of crime does not have a direct impact on collective efficacy. Conclusions Our study suggests that police and city government more generally should not look to controlling physical disorder as a means of increasing community controls. At the same time addressing social disorder is an important mechanism to bolster collective efficacy, though care is needed to avoid bias or backfire effects from aggressive order-maintenance policing.

Proactive monitoring and operator discretion: A systematic social observation of CCTV control room operations

Proactive monitoring and operator discretion: A systematic social observation of CCTV control room operations

Proactive monitoring and operator discretion: A systematic social observation of CCTV control room operations

BackgroundResearch on police discretion indicates a host of legal and extra-legal factors can impact officer decision making. The emergence of video surveillance technologies has made certain police interactions with the public more remote in nature. Decisions to enforce the law, consequently, now commonly begin outside of the context of face-to-face police/citizen interactions. This study explores police decision-making in the context of proactive video surveillance operations. MethodsData were generated from a systematic social observation of CCTV operator activity during the Newark CCTV Directed Patrol Experiment. Regression models tested how covariates affect the duration of CCTV operator targeted surveillances and CCTV operator decisions to report incidents providing reasonable suspicion and/or probable cause for a police response. ResultsA range of model covariates significantly influenced CCTV operator decision making, inclusive of surveillance targets identified as prior suspects, the CCTV site being within a commercial area, visible obstructions impeding camera view, CCTV operator rank, and CCTV operator gender. ConclusionsFindings suggest that organizational culture, CCTV operator characteristics, and land usage of target areas may foster differential surveillance behavior across CCTV operators. As remote strategies for policing continue to expand internationally, the identification of factors that impact discretionary practices is critical.

Systematic Social Observation at Scale: Using Crowdsourcing and Computer Vision to Measure Visible Neighborhood Conditions

Analysis of neighborhood environments is important for understanding inequality. Few studies, however, use direct measures of the visible characteristics of neighborhood conditions, despite their theorized importance in shaping individual and community well-being, because collecting data on the physical conditions of places across neighborhoods and cities and over time has required extensive time and labor. The authors introduce systematic social observation at scale (SSO@S), a pipeline for using visual data, crowdsourcing, and computer vision to identify visible characteristics of neighborhoods at a large scale. The authors implement SSO@S on millions of street-level images across three physically distinct cities—Boston, Detroit, and Los Angeles—from 2007 to 2020 to identify trash across space and over time. The authors evaluate the extent to which this approach can be used to assist with systematic coding of street-level imagery through cross-validation and out-of-sample validation, class-activation mapping, and comparisons with other sources of observed neighborhood characteristics. The SSO@S approach produces estimates with high reliability that correlate with some expected demographic characteristics but not others, depending on the city. The authors conclude with an assessment of this approach for measuring visible characteristics of neighborhoods and the implications for methods and research.

Developing and field testing the Neighbourhood Observational Tool for auditing urban community environments (CyNOTes) in the city of Limassol, Cyprus

ABSTRACT Systematic Social Observation provides supplementary information about the micro-scale neighborhood environment. This study explored the feasibility of neighborhood audits for the first time in the city of Limassol, Cyprus (population size, 2021 census: 258.900). The prevalence and variability of audited features were investigated using the 126-item CyNOTes inventory, organised along a typology of 17 domains. Two independent audits, with a repeat in two weeks, were performed across 30 randomly selected street segments, stratified in three groups of neighborhoods according to the educational attainment of residents. Associations with census indicators and survey data on SF-36 Quality of Life among residents aged 45–64 (N = 150) were explored. More adverse conditions were recorded in low educational attainment neighborhoods, with differences apparent in domains with generally high as well as low scores. Neighborhood scores correlated with census indicators of the built environment, while negative correlations where observed with sociodemographic indicators, such as population aged over 65 and non-Cypriot population, suggesting social inequities. In neighborhoods with more adverse features, lower physical and mental health-related quality of life were reported. Overall, the study documented environmental inequity. CyNOTes offers the potential for further development and scaling-up for public health research, policy, and advocacy.

Applicability of virtual Systematic Social Observation using Google Street View in an urban walkability assessment

Applicability of virtual Systematic Social Observation using Google Street View in an urban walkability assessment

Video Data Analysis and Police Body-Worn Camera Footage

Video data analysis (VDA) represents an important methodological framework for contemporary research approaches to the myriad of footage available from cameras, devices, and phones. Footage from police body-worn cameras (BWCs) is anticipated to be a widely available platform for social science researchers to scrutinize the interactions between police and citizens. We examine issues of validity and reliability as related to BWCs in the context of VDA, based on an assessment of the quality of audio and video obtained from that platform. Second, we compare the coding of BWC footage obtained from a sample of police-citizen encounters to coding of the same events by on-scene coders using an instrument adapted from in-person systematic social observations (SSOs). Findings show that there are substantial and systematic audio and video gaps present in BWC footage as a source of data for social science investigation that likely impact the reliability of measures. Despite these problems, BWC data have substantial capacity for judging sequential developments, causal ordering, and the duration of events. Thus, the technology should open theoretical frames that are too cumbersome for in-person observation. Theoretical development with VDA in mind is suggested as an important pathway for future researchers in terms of framing data collection from BWCs and also suggesting areas where triangulation is essential.

Lessons Learned From a Citywide Abandoned Housing Experiment

Problem, research strategy, and findings The negative impact of vacant and abandoned housing in city neighborhoods is extreme, affecting health and quality of life, promoting violence, and leading to further abandonment. One approach to addressing abandoned housing is to intervene with low-cost interventions that provide a visual sense of ownership. We tested whether a low-cost remediation of abandoned and vacant houses or a trash cleanup intervention would make a noticeable difference in the levels of nearby disrepair, disorder, and public safety. The abandoned housing remediation and trash cleanup interventions were a test of compliance with municipal ordinances. We used an experimental design to test the causal effects of the ordinances and because the scale of abandonment was too large to provide treatment to all abandoned houses in the city. We used systematic social observation methods to rate changes in disrepair, disorder, and litter at housing sites and on the city blocks they were located and police-reported data on gun violence and illegal substance use. Our experimental design allowed us to see whether observed disrepair, disorder, and public safety improved after working windows and doors were installed on abandoned houses compared with a trash cleanup around properties or a no-intervention control condition. Our results showed significant changes in observed disrepair, disorder, and gun violence and illustrate the benefits of experimental evaluations of place-based changes to the built environment. Takeaway for practice Improving compliance with ordinances to remediate abandoned housing can make a noticeable difference in disrepair in neighborhoods and contribute to improved public safety. We illustrate how planners can use field experiments in partnership with city agencies, nonprofit community groups, and local universities to discover novel approaches to advance place-based changes to the built environment that can help economically disadvantaged communities abate problems of physical disorder.

Neighborhood conditions in a Swedish context-Two studies of reliability and validity of virtual systematic social observation using Google Street View.

The goal of these studies was to investigate the reliability and validity of virtual systematic social observation (virtual SSO) using Google Street View in a Swedish neighborhood context. This was accomplished in two studies. Study 1 focused on interrater reliability and construct validity, comparing ratings conducted in-person to those done using Google Street View, across 24 study sites within four postal code areas. Study 2 focused on criterion validity of virtual SSO in terms of neighborhoods with low versus high income levels, including 133 study sites within 22 postal code areas in a large Swedish city. In both studies, assessment of the neighborhood context was conducted at each study site, using a protocol adapted to a Swedish context. Scales for Physical Decay, Neighborhood Dangerousness, and Physical Disorder were found to be reliable, with adequate interrater reliability, high consistency across methods, and high internal consistency. In Study 2, significantly higher levels of observed Physical Decay, Neighborhood Dangerousness, and signs of garbage or litter were observed in postal codes areas (site data was aggregated to postal code level) with lower as compared to higher income levels. We concluded that the scales within the virtual SSO with Google Street View protocol that were developed in this series of studies represents a reliable and valid measure of several key neighborhood contextual features. Implications for understanding the complex person-context interactions central to many theories of positive development among youth were discussed in relation to the study findings.

Urban and social determinants of alcohol and tobacco consumption among adolescents in Madrid

ObjectiveThis study aims to describe the accessibility to and promotion of alcohol and tobacco around secondary schools in Madrid and its distribution in relation with area-level socioeconomic deprivation; analyze the relationship between this exposure and individual consumption characteristics of students between 14 and 18 years old; and explore other facilitators of this consumption. MethodMixed-methods study conducted in three phases: 1) we collected data on accessibility to and promotion of alcohol and tobacco in the environment using systematic social observation around 55 secondary schools; 2) we administered 2287 questionnaires among the students in these centers to gather information about characteristics and determinants of consumption; and 3) we conducted 20 semi-structured interviews and one discussion group to deepen in the results obtained in surveys and systematic social observation. We will use Geographic Information Systems to integrate and analyze the data from a spatial perspective.

‘It depends’: Officer insights on the potential for body-worn cameras to change police and citizen behaviour

Abstract This study mined officers’ perspectives on whether body-worn cameras (BWCs) could change the behaviour of citizens and police. Officers reinforced themes from prior studies on the professionalizing effect of BWCs, the potential for passivity, and the concern with ‘second-guessing’. Officers also stressed the theme of ‘it depends’, where behaviour change is contingent on the citizen, the situation, and the officer. Findings resonated with the concept of police encounters as two-way social interactions and related insights from regulation scholarship on ‘motivational posturing’. Results underscore the need for more observational studies (including ethnographies and systematic social observations) that identify the variety of encounters and settings where BWC activation might alter behavioural norms and encounter dynamics. Relatedly, BWC footage could be mined to inform reviews of everyday police work that identify the unique ways in which BWC activation could be leveraged to change behaviour in a variety of situations with different posturing dynamics. Policymakers should emphasize the complexity of the implementation environments surrounding the uptake of BWCs and other technology, with a view to encouraging research that measures the many dimensions of officers’ perceptions. Understanding the place and role of BWCs within the contexts of officers’ holistic experiences should help policymakers understand both the limits and potential of cameras to change everyday policing.

City streetscapes and neighborhood characteristics of fatal opioid overdoses among people experiencing homelessness who use drugs in New York City, 2017-2019.

While housing is a critical social determinant of nonprescription opioid overdose, little is known about how place impacts fatal overdose for people experiencing homelessness (PEH) who use drugs beyond the public versus private domains. This study investigated patterns of neighborhood environment features at locations of fatal overdoses among PEH. We remotely visited locations of opioid-involved fatal overdoses provided by the New York City Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 2017-2019 (n=3276), with Google Street View and used systematic social observation to assess characteristics of the street block related to drug exposures. We cross-referenced home address with city shelters and supportive housing to identify PEH (n=503). We used the differences of K functions from the spatial point patterns and kernel ratio function maps to identify geographic clusters. We then used logistic regression to identify significant individual-, block-, and neighborhood-level covariates (neighborhood deprivation, segregation, population density). Over half (55.9%, n=281) of fatal overdoses among PEH occurred in supportive housing or shelters, and 15.5% (n=78) occurred in public spaces (e.g., parks). Spatial analyses identified areas of significant concentrated fatal overdoses among PEH in Manhattan, the South Bronx, and Brooklyn. We identified several significant indicators of physical and social order and disorder associated with increased odds of experiencing homelessness at time of fatal overdose, including construction/renovation, graffiti, traffic calming features, and loitering. Harm reduction services should be co-located in facilities that serve PEH and targeted to street blocks with indicators of physical and social disorder. While supportive housing is a crucial step in preventing fatal opioid overdoses among PEH, identifying neighborhoods for intervention services delivery and harm reduction outreach for PEH is necessary.

Situational factors and police use of force across micro‐time intervals: A video systematic social observation and panel regression analysis

AbstractThe current study analyzes police use of force as a series of time‐bound transactions between officers, civilians, and bystanders. The research begins with a systematic social observation of use‐of‐force events recorded on police body‐worn cameras in Newark, New Jersey. Researchers measure the occurrence and time stamps for numerous participant physical and verbal behaviors. Data are converted into a longitudinal panel format measuring all observed behaviors in 5‐second intervals. Panel logistic regression models estimate the effect of each behavior on use of force in immediate and subsequent temporal periods. Findings indicate certain variables influence use of force at a distinct point in time, whereas others exert influence on use of force across multiple time periods. The most influential variables relate to authority maintenance theoretical constructs. This finding supports prior perspectives arguing that police use of force largely results from officer attempts to maintain constant authority over civilians during face‐to‐face encounters. Nonetheless, a range of additional variables reflecting procedural justice, civilian resistance, and bystander presence significantly affect when police use force during civilian encounters. Results provide nuance to theoretical frameworks considering use of force as resulting from the interplay between officer and civilian actions and reactions.