Systematic Social Observation Research Articles

O2-S3.05 STIs and neighbourhood drug markets: first a foray into measurement

BackgroundNeighbourhoods with drug markets (as compared to those without) may be more likely to have a greater concentration of STI infected sex partners. The objectives of this study were to...

Cognitive function in the community setting: the neighbourhood as a source of ‘cognitive reserve’?

BackgroundExisting research has found a positive association between cognitive function and residence in a socioeconomically advantaged neighbourhood. Yet, the mechanisms underlying this relationship have not been empirically investigated.ObjectiveTo test the...

Procedural justice during police-citizen encounters: The effects of process-based policing on citizen compliance and demeanor

Purpose Theories of procedural justice have facilitated the development of a process-based approach to policing which emphasizes the fairness of the manner in which the police exercise their discretion. The study examines whether procedurally fair behavior by the police affects two types of citizen behavior during encounters: citizen disrespect toward the police and citizen noncompliance with police requests. Methods This study uses data from systematic social observations of police-citizen encounters to examine procedural justice factors on citizen behavior. Because of the reciprocal nature of police-citizen interactions, an instrumental variable is used in the statistical analysis to help address the causal relationship between police force and citizen disrespect. Results The statistical analyses find limited support for procedural justice factors. Two types of procedurally fair behavior by the police, police demeanor and their consideration of citizen voice, are significant in reducing citizen disrespect and noncompliance, respectively. Conclusion Procedural justice factors have limited and inconsistent impacts on the two types of citizen behavior, and future research should address the limitations of this study and evaluate process-based policing with more data from social observations of police-citizen encounters.

Rethinking measurement of neighborhood in the context of health research

Systematic social observations have been gaining increasing recognition in neighborhood and health research as a way of measuring neighborhood attributes hypothesized to affect residents' well-being. Despite the growing popularity of this methodology, there has not been a critical discussion of potential shortcomings of this approach. This paper reviews some of the challenges and limitations in the systematic social observations methodology. We especially differentiate between limitations related to the methodology itself and challenges the approach presents for researchers in the field. We conclude by offering directions for future research utilizing this technique.

Systematic Observations of Health Damaging Factors in Informal Neighbourhoods in Aleppo, Syria-A Pilot Study

ISEE-0624 Background and Objectives: Systematic social observation is a method to evaluate pathways by which neighbourhood environments impact health. This method has mainly been used in developed country settings. In Aleppo (population 2,500,000) informal settlements occupy about 45% of the city’s inhabited area and are home to one million people. Informal settlements are neighbourhoods built without planning and for which environmental statistics are not available. The objective of this study was to pilot a context specific procedure and method to systematically assess characteristics of urban informal neighbourhoods relevant to health and wellbeing. Methods: An observational instrument was developed based on a literature review, observations in informal neighbourhoods and interviews with a purposive sample of key informants. The observational instrument measured land use (housing and industry); environmental quality and the social environment. The unit of observation (the spatial scale at which neighbourhood characteristics may differ) was identified as 100 meters of the right hand side of a street. The pilot study took place in Shaikh Maksoud, the largest informal settlement in Aleppo. We identified key pointers using a Garmin Global Positioning System and downloaded the waypoints into Google Earth Plus. Observation points were selected randomly. Results: The achieved sample comprised of twenty one random points, each consisting of three units of observations. We found big variability in the quality of the environment between the points of the observation within the same neighbourhood. For example, the eastern part had a high industrial-residential mix and the worse environmental quality. The best conditions were observed in the parts closer to the border with the formal area. The main challenge for adapting the methodology was to define the unit of observation. Conclusions: Systematic social observation can be a useful method in studies of health and place in developing countries.

Female officers and the ethic of care: Does officer gender impact police behaviors?

Most of the empirical literature on gender and policing has assessed gender differences in arrest levels and police use of force. While simple gender differences in police behavior are important for understanding skills men and women bring to the policing occupation, research must also determine under what conditions gender differences emerge and what factors impact the relationship between officer gender and behavior for this knowledge to be constructive. Although sexy, arrest and force decisions occur when police discretion is often limited, adding little to the knowledge of how gender affects everyday police-citizen encounters. Using data from systematic social observations of police-citizen encounters in St. Petersburg, Florida and Indianapolis, Indiana, this article replicates past analyses of gender differences in police utilization of controlling and supporting behaviors, but also extends the analyses by assessing the possible impact of intervening situational and organizational characteristics, determining under what conditions female officers utilize different behaviors from their male counterparts. The findings provide mixed support for the general hypothesis of gender-specific responses. Consistent with previous literature, this research suggests that women are much less likely than men to utilize extreme controlling behavior, such as threats, physical restraint, search, and arrest. Surprisingly, the findings do not confirm that women are more likely than men to use supporting behaviors, even when controlling for women's greater likelihood to hold community policing assignments. These findings, while unexpected, are important. Simply assuming female officers manifest stereotypically feminine traits in policing tasks is clearly an overly simplistic conceptualization of the meaning and impact of gender in policing. The implications for female officers, policing, and future research are discussed.

Mobility Disability and the Urban Built Environment

Research on the effects of the built environment in the pathway from impairment to disability has been largely absent. Using data from the Chicago Community Adult Health Study (2001-2003), the authors examined the effect of built environment characteristics on mobility disability among adults aged 45 or more years (n = 1,195) according to their level of lower extremity physical impairment. Built environment characteristics were assessed by using systematic social observation to independently rate street and sidewalk quality in the block surrounding each respondent's residence in the city of Chicago (Illinois). Using multinomial logistic regression, the authors found that street conditions had no effect on outdoor mobility among adults with only mild or no physical impairment. However, among adults with more severe impairment in neuromuscular and movement-related functions, the difference in the odd ratios for reporting severe mobility disability was over four times greater when at least one street was in fair or poor condition (characterized by cracks, potholes, or broken curbs). When all streets were in good condition, the odds of reporting mobility disability were attenuated in those with lower extremity impairment. If street quality could be improved, even somewhat, for those adults at greatest risk for disability in outdoor mobility, the disablement process could be slowed or even reversed.

BROKEN WINDOWS OR WINDOW DRESSING? CITIZENS'(IN) ABILITY TO TELL THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISORDER AND CRIME*

Research SummaryBroken windows theory (and policing strategies based on this perspective) predicts that citizens' perceptions of disorder in their communities cause fear and social withdrawal, which thereby opens the streets for serious predatory crime. A key assumption, therefore, is that the primary exogenous variable in the broken windows process (disorder) and its outcome variable (crime) are actually separate constructs. The empirical evidence regarding the discriminant validity of measures of disorder and crime, however, is mixed. This confusion is caused in part by the general reliance on comparing “objective” indicators of disorder and crime (e.g., using systematic social observations of disorder and/or official records of crime), which fail to capture the social meaning ascribed to disorder by community residents that may trigger the broken windows process. To address this issue, the current study presents competing confirmatory factor analytic models to test the relative fit of one‐ and two‐factor models of citizens' perceptions of disorder and crime in their communities. The results show that the two‐factor model is inappropriate because of a high correlation between perceptions of disorder and crime. The primary implication of this finding is that broken windows theory and order maintenance policing need to be reconsidered.Policy ImplicationsBroken windows, or order maintenance policing, is premised on the idea that citizens recognize disorder as a problem apart from crime and that reducing disorder will cause a decline in fear. The results of the current study refute the underlying logic of order maintenance policing by demonstrating that survey respondents did not, in fact, distinguish between disorder and crime. This result has implications both for the actual effectiveness of order maintenance policing in terms of crime reduction and for citizens' satisfaction with police agencies that focus more on disorder than on serious crime.

Promoting Active Living Among People with Physical Disabilities: Evidence for Neighborhood-Level Buoys

People with physical disabilities are more likely to be sedentary than the general population, possibly because they have an accrued sensitivity to environmental features. This paper describes the relationship between neighborhood-level active living buoys and the active living practices of adults with physical disabilities living in a large urban area. A sample of 205 people with physical disabilities was recruited via a local rehabilitation center and its adapted fitness center. Telephone interviews were administered by senior occupational therapy students. The interview included a modified version of the Physical Activity and Disability Survey, a validated instrument that includes questions on physical activity, active transportation, and other activities of daily living. Individuals were geocoded within their census tract of residence (n=114) using their postal codes. Data on neighborhood active living potential were gleaned from systematic social observation. Multilevel logistic regression analyses showed that the association between the presence of environmental buoys and leisure activity was significant (OR=4.0, 95% CI=1.1-13.8) despite adjustments for individual difference variables while the association with active transportation became nonsignificant (OR=2.9, 95% CI=0.7-7.7) following adjustment for these variables. People with physical disabilities who live in neighborhoods with more environmental buoys are more likely to report involvement in leisure-time physical activity.

Perceptions of disorder: Contributions of neighborhood characteristics to subjective perceptions of disorder

Theoretical explanations and empirical evidence of how disorder is perceived and its relation to independently observed measures of disorder are rare. In recent work, Sampson and Raudenbush [2004. Seeing disorder: Neighborhood stigma and the social construction of “Broken Windows”. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(4), 319–342] investigated how individuals form perceptions of disorder and found that perceptions of disorder in Chicago neighborhoods are shaped not only by observable conditions of disorder, but also by neighborhoods’ racial and socioeconomic composition. In this paper, we investigate the bases for perceiving disorder with data from Baltimore using a methodology similar to that used by Sampson and Raudenbush (2004). Using surveys, systematic social observations, census data, and police records to investigate variations in individual perceptions of disorder at the individual and neighborhood levels, this study, consistent with the literature, finds that visual cues of disorder are not unambiguous and that perceptions of disorder are based not only on neighborhood observed disorder but also on individual characteristics of residents and neighborhood social structure. Additionally, our findings indicate that neighborhood poverty and not neighborhood racial composition affects perceptions of disorder in Baltimore. The fact that these findings are in contrast to the findings in Chicago suggests that the influence of racial segregation on perception of disorder is imbedded in the larger historical context.

Controlling Suburban and Small-Town Hoods

We currently lack systematic observational data concerning street-level interactions between police and juveniles in nonurban jurisdictions. This study uses systematic social observation (SSO) methods to examine the nature and character of police encounters with juveniles age 13 to 17 years in 20 suburban and small-town jurisdictions in terms of (a) the types of problems nonurban officers confronted while interacting with juveniles, (b) the actions taken by officers to resolve these problems, and (c) the discretionary decision making of officers in arrest situations involving juveniles. The findings suggest similarities and differences between nonurban officers and previously studied urban officers in terms of how they interact with juveniles. A discussion regarding how these findings may be interpreted is offered, highlighting the general need for more research concerning street-level interactions between police and juveniles, and the importance of including samples of nonurban communities in studies of police–juvenile encounters.

Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-Related Mortality: The Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave

The authors draw on Klinenberg's (2002) ethnography and recent neighborhood theory to explain community-level variation in mortality during the July 1995 Chicago heat wave. They examine the impact of neighborhood structural disadvantage on heat wave mortality and consider three possible intervening mechanisms: social network interaction, collective efficacy, and commercial conditions. Combining Census and mortality data with the 1995 Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods Community Survey and Systematic Social Observation, the authors estimate hierarchical Poisson models of death rates both during the 1995 heat wave and comparable, temporally proximate July weeks (1990-94, 1996). They find that neighborhood affluence was negatively associated with heat wave mortality. Consistent with Klinenberg's ethnographic study of the Chicago heat wave, commercial decline was positively associated with heat wave mortality and explains the affluence effect. Where commercial decline was low, neighborhoods were largely protected from heat-related mortality. Although social network interaction and collective efficacy did not influence heat wave mortality, collective efficacy was negatively associated with mortality during comparable July weeks (when no heat wave occurred). Unequal distribution of community-based resources had important implications for geographic differences in survival rates during the Chicago heat wave, and may be relevant for other disasters.

Inter-rater and test–retest reliability: Methods and results for the neighborhood observational checklist

The popularity of direct or systematic social observation as a method to evaluate the mechanisms by which neighborhood environments impact health and contribute to health disparities is growing. The development of measures with adequate inter-rater and test–retest reliability is essential for this research. In this paper, based on our experiences conducting direct observation of neighborhoods in Detroit, MI, we describe strategies to promote high inter-rater and test–retest reliability and methods to evaluate reliability. We then present the results and discuss implications for future research efforts using direct observation in four areas: methods to evaluate reliability, instrument content and design, observer training, and data collection.

Race and Officer Decision Making: Examining Differences in Arrest Outcomes between Black and White Officers

Since the 1960s, one of the major reform efforts in law enforcement has been to increase the number of Black Americans within police agencies and on patrol in the streets. The general premise behind these efforts has been that increased diversity will improve police–community relations and will decrease biased police behavior, particularly against Black citizens. Policies seeking to reform policing through increasing the numbers of African American officers have been implemented with little empirical evidence that an officer's race (or ethnicity) is actually related to their behavior towards citizens, in particular arrest decisions. Using data from systematic social observations of police–citizen encounters in Cincinnati, OH, this study examines the influence of officer race on arrest outcomes, focusing on the behavior of Black officers. Findings suggest that officer race has direct influence on arrest outcomes and there are substantive differences between White and Black officers in the decision to arrest. In general, White officers in our study were more likely to arrest suspects than Black officers, but Black suspects were more likely to be arrested when the decision maker was a Black officer.

Explaining Police Officer Discretionary Activity

Existing research on the activities of police officers has examined a range of police behaviors and decision processes. The present article attempts to delineate factors that influence the daily discretionary choices of officers concerning the activities they undertake on a daily basis. By empirically examining the contribution of officer and community factors on decisions to engage in a variety of typical police activities, this article provides a more complete understanding of factors that influence the work-related decisions of street-level police officers. Using systematic social observation data on both community-oriented and traditional beat officers, multivariate models are developed to explain officers’ daily activities. The findings reveal that neighborhood-level and attitude variables influenced community and traditional police officers differently. Overall, the individual-level attributes of officers did not influence activity choices of either type of officer. These findings are discussed in the context of community policing within the city studied.

Managing Police Patrol Time: The Role of Supervisor Directives

Contemporary police practice advocates the importance of proactive policing activities. Proactive policing reforms emphasize self‐initiated tasks during unassigned patrol time and directed activities based on supervisor review of crime analysis and problem identification. Our study analyzes data from systematic social observations of police patrol officers to examine how officers spent their discretionary time. We find that, on average, over three quarters of a patrol officers’ shift is unassigned. During this time, officers primarily self‐initiate routine patrol, or back up other officers on calls to which they were not dispatched. Just 6 percent of unassigned time activities are directed by supervising officers, dispatchers, other officers or citizens. Moreover, directives provided by supervisors are vague, general in form, and do not operationalize problem‐oriented policing, community‐oriented policing, or proactive policing strategies. We conclude that first, a very significant proportion of patrol officer time is spent uncommitted that could be better utilized doing proactive, problem‐oriented policing activities, and second, supervisors need to provide patrol officers with much more detailed directives, based on sound crime analysis, to help capitalize on the under‐utilization of patrol officer time.

Variation in officer downtime: a review of the research

PurposeTo summarize and compare both the methodology and findings of existing studies of patrol officer workload that have contributed to what is known about “downtime” (time not responding to citizen calls for service), and provide more standardized estimates of downtime for comparison purposes.Design/methodology/approachA total of 11 studies of police workload published between 1970 and 2001 that used data collected through either dispatch records or systematic social observations of police officers, and reported information regarding the amount and use of patrol officer downtime, are summarized and compared. The studies report information for 13 different (US) police departments and averages for the 24 departments studied in the Police Services Study (1977). A consistent measure of downtime is estimated for each study.FindingsA consistent measure of downtime estimated for each study yields more similar results across studies than the originally reported findings suggest. For the studies that used data collected through dispatch records, the average amount of downtime is 70 percent of a patrol officer's shift, for the studies that used systematic social observation data 79 percent. Observations regarding the methodologies and contributions of workload studies are discussed.Research limitations/implicationsSuggested changes in the reporting of future workload study findings would provide more accurate information and facilitate comparisons across studies, benefiting both researchers and police administrators.Practical implicationsThese findings suggest patrol officers always have had, and continue to have, a lot of downtime available for restructuring.Originality/valueCompiles, organizes, and compares information regarding what is known about the amount and use of patrol officer downtime, and suggests researchers and administrators consider approaching the study and use of downtime in new ways.

Addressing the “elephant in the living room”

PurposeTo present systematic social observation (SSO) data concerning the work routines and citizen interactions of suburban police officers, including a detailed breakdown of how these officers spent time on their shift and the nature in which they interacted with citizens.Design/methodology/approachThis paper presents systematic social observation.FindingsIn some ways, suburban police officers behave much like other types of officers, especially the manner in which they spend time alone on shift. There appears to be some degree of variability in terms of the nature of police‐citizen encounters both within the observed group of suburban officers and between them and other types of police.Research limitations/implicationsResearchers interested in describing variations in police behavior across agencies should strive to include suburban agencies in their samples, so that it can be investigated whether or not, and to what degree, suburban community structures impact police behavior on the street.Originality/valueOf value to those involved with, or interested in, variations in police behavior across suburban communities.

Departmental and citizen complaints as predictors of police coercion

PurposeThis paper seeks to examine a variety of measures of complaints and their relationship to police officers' use of coercion in encounters with suspects.Design/methodology/approachData from the Project on Policing Neighborhoods, involving the systematic social observation of police, were combined with complaint data from the St Petersburg Police Department to examine the influence of complaints on use of coercion in everyday encounters. Hierarchical models, which included theoretically relevant control variables, were used to test multiple measures of departmental and citizen complaints as predictors of officers' use of coercion.FindingsThe analyses indicate that, net of other important predictors, officer complaint rate for force and verbal discourtesy is associated with higher levels of coercion in encounters with suspects. The analyses also indicate that officers' verbal discourtesy complaint rate is associated with higher levels of coercion, but complaint rates for physical force are not related to higher levels of coercion.Research limitations/implicationsThe current results do not necessarily generalize to all police departments, since the department, at that time, was a leader in community policing.Practical implicationsThe influence of complaints for force and discourtesy on coercion suggests that police departments could benefit from greater attention toward officers who generate complaints for discourtesy from the public.Originality/valueThis paper examines the utility of official complaint data as a determinant of officers' coercive behavior in encounters with suspects. The research would be of interest to police executives concerned with creating “early warning systems” as well as police scholars concerned with the determinants of officer coercion.

Disentangling the influence of suspects' demeanor and mental disorder on arrest

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to understand the factors that influence officer behavior when encountering suspects of crime who are perceived to have a mental disorder.Design/methodology/approachThis paper utilizes data collected from systematic social observations of street officers during 617 encounters with suspects, including 49 that were perceived to have a mental disorder. Multivariate models are estimated to determine the relative influence mental disorder has on officer decision making.FindingsThe paper finds mentally disordered suspects are more likely to demonstrate disrespectful or hostile behavior. The paper also finds that disrespect and hostility increases the likelihood of arrests. However, results also demonstrate that despite behavioral differences, persons with mental disorders are significantly less likely to be arrested by officers. Results support the contention that officers view mental status as a mitigating factor during encounters, and further calls in to question the criminalization hypothesis.Research limitations/implicationsIt is not clear what extent informal actions were taken by officers during encounters with mentally disordered suspects. Future research can also examine the interaction process that occurs between police and citizens who are mentally disordered, and consider evaluating the effectiveness of various responses to mentally disordered suspects.Originality/valueThis paper has value for both practitioners interested in understanding the dynamics of the police‐citizen encounter, as well as academics who are involved with theorizing the nature of social control by police officers.