Systematic Observation Instrument Research Articles

Effectiveness of a Video-Feedback and Questioning Programme to Develop Cognitive Expertise in Sport

The importance within sport expertise of cognitive factors has been emphasised in many research studies. Adaptations that take place in athletes’ long-term memories are going to condition their decision-making and performance, and training programmes must be developed that improve these adaptations. In our study, we provide a tactical-cognitive training programme based on video-feedback and questioning in order to improve tactical knowledge in tennis players and verify its effect when transferred to athletes’ decision-making. 11 intermediate tennis players participated in this study (12.9±0.7 years old), distributed into two groups (experimental, n = 5; control, n = 6). Tactical knowledge was measured by problem representation and strategy planning with a verbal protocol. Decision-making was measured by a systematic observation instrument. Results confirm the effectiveness of a combination of video-feedback and questioning on cognitive expertise, developing adaptations in long-term memory that produce an improvement in the quality of tactical knowledge (content, sophistication and structure). This, in turn, is transferred to the athletes’ decision-making capacity, leading to a higher percentage of successful decisions made during game play. Finally, we emphasise the need to develop effective programmes to develop cognitive expertise and improve athletes' performance, and include it in athletes’ formative stages.

A five-stage process for the development and validation of a systematic observation instrument

The primary purpose of this study was to develop and validate a System for Observing the Teaching of Games in Physical Education (SOTG-PE). Primary pilot testing of the SOTG-PE was conducted in a large, selective, all-boys secondary school in the north-west of England. Two hundred and eighty three pupils aged 11–16 volunteered as participants for the pilot testing phase of this study. The SOTG-PE coded 1379 minutes of physical education games lessons across three games categories, including invasion, net/wall and striking and fielding. In addition, the teaching interactions of four full-time teachers of physical education and one pre-service teacher were also coded. The inter-observer and intra-observer mean re-test coefficients suggest that the SOTG-PE is valid for evaluating and recording child activity, lesson context and teacher interactions during various physical education games lessons in the UK.

Developing the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS): Establishing validity and reliability of a computerised systematic observation instrument

We outline the evolution of a computerised systematic observation tool and describe the process for establishing the validity and reliability of this new instrument. The Coach Analysis and Interventions System (CAIS) has 23 primary behaviours related to physical behaviour, feedback/reinforcement, instruction, verbal/non-verbal, questioning and management. The instrument also analyses secondary coach behaviour related to performance states, recipient, timing, content and questioning/silence. The CAIS is a multi-dimensional and multi-level mechanism able to provide detailed and contextualised data about specific coaching behaviours occurring in complex and nuanced coaching interventions and environments that can be applied to both practice sessions and competition.

Systematic Neighborhood Observations at High Spatial Resolution: Methodology and Assessment of Potential Benefits

There is a growing body of public health research documenting how characteristics of neighborhoods are associated with differences in the health status of residents. However, little is known about how the spatial resolution of neighborhood observational data or community audits affects the identification of neighborhood differences in health. We developed a systematic neighborhood observation instrument for collecting data at very high spatial resolution (we observe each parcel independently) and used it to collect data in a low-income minority neighborhood in Dallas, TX. In addition, we collected data on the health status of individuals residing in this neighborhood. We then assessed the inter-rater reliability of the instrument and compared the costs and benefits of using data at this high spatial resolution. Our instrument provides a reliable and cost-effect method for collecting neighborhood observational data at high spatial resolution, which then allows researchers to explore the impact of varying geographic aggregations. Furthermore, these data facilitate a demonstration of the predictive accuracy of self-reported health status. We find that ordered logit models of health status using observational data at different spatial resolution produce different results. This implies a need to analyze the variation in correlative relationships at different geographic resolutions when there is no solid theoretical rational for choosing a particular resolution. We argue that neighborhood data at high spatial resolution greatly facilitates the evaluation of alternative geographic specifications in studies of neighborhood and health.

Physiological and Notational Comparison of New and Old Scoring Systems of Singles Matches in Men's Badminton

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese. This study compared the physiological responses and shot selection preferences of male singles players between thenew (rally-point) and old (scoring-by-service) scoring systems. Ten male athletes each played two matches against the same opponent on different days using the lottery method. Matches were notated using a systematic observation instrument, and physiological data were measured using heart rate (HR), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and blood lactate levels (LA). Results showed no differences in peak HR, RPE or LA responses between the two systems. However, players spent more time at an HR greater than 90%HRpeak under the old system (63%) than under the new system (54%). Notational analysis demonstrated a significant decrease in total match playing time (PT: 29 min), work time (10 min), work density (0.57), rest time (18 min), effective playing time (36%), number of rallies (203) and serves (35) under the new system as compared to the old system (e.g. PT: 42 min). No significant differences were noted between the two systems for number of shots, rally time, stroke time, frequency distribution of shot selection and positions during the matches, and for shot methods on the last shot of each rally. These findings suggest that the new system can significantly shorten PT compared to the old system, and that physiological responses, shot selection and positions do not affect between the systems. Meanwhile, the greater proportion of time spent at higher HR intensities under the old system may be attributed to the longer playing time with the opponent. 本研究目的，針對「新(落地得分)、舊制(發球得分)羽球單打比賽時之生理反應和擊球方式」做比較。以羽球正式比賽抽籤方式讓10位大學男子甲組羽球選手，決定其各二場新、舊制羽球單打比賽同一位對手之方式。以高速攝影機拍攝每場比賽做為系統性觀察法之內容分析，並在每場比賽時測驗心跳率 (HR)、運動自覺量表(RPE)和血乳酸濃度 (LA)做為生理反應的評估指標。結果顯示，羽球新、舊制比賽間引起心跳率峰值 (HRpeak)、RPE或血乳酸上升的反應並無統計差異。然而，舊制比賽時>90%HRpeak強度的比率(63%)明顯比新制 (54%)來得多。新制比賽的整場比賽完成時間 (PT：29分鐘)、淨比賽時間 (10分鐘)、運動密度 (0.57)、休息時間 (18分鐘)、比賽時間效益 (36%)、每球來回完成次數 (203)及發球次數 (35)都明顯比舊制 (例 如PT：42分鐘)縮短，但二種不同比賽間在揮拍次數、每球來回完成時間、擊球時間、擊球方式、擊球位置及每球最後一拍的擊球方式均無統計差異。這些結果顯示，新賽制規則改變會比舊賽制明顯縮短比賽時間，但不同賽制間所引起的生理反應、擊球方式及位置則不因規則改變而受到影響。此外，舊賽制比新賽制出現較高心跳率分佈情形，可歸因於舊制比賽之雙方選手有較多對抗機會或較長比賽時間所造成的。

Observational analysis of student activity modes, lesson contexts and teacher interactions during games classes in high school (11—16 years) physical education

This purpose of this study was to examine student activity, lesson contexts and teacher interactions during secondary school physical education, using a recently validated systematic observation instrument termed the System for Observing the Teaching of Games in Physical Education (SOTG-PE). Thirty, single-gender high school (11—16 years) physical education games lessons were systematically observed and recorded using SOTG-PE. Results showed the pupils were engaged in high levels of inactivity. The highest level of inactivity was recorded (52.8 percent) in the striking/fielding category. In the lesson context category general management was recorded highest (47.4 percent). The highest recorded teacher interactions across the three games categories were verbally promoting technical behaviour (40.9 percent).

The Importance of Transformational Leadership in the Quest for Group Cohesion: The Case of a University Level Varsity Football Program

The purpose of this study was to systematically analyze and describe the behaviors (coach athlete interactions) of university level football coaches, to compare these findings to other studies and to analyze these results in light of transformational leadership. The Arizona State University Observation Instrument (ASUOI), a systematic observation instrument consisting of 14 behavior categories, was used to compile data on the interactions of seven members of the coaching staff. Event recording was used to collect the data of each coach being observed during practice sessions, these sessions were videotaped to determine the interactions between the athletes and the coaches. Segments of the practices were classified as warm-up, group and team. Analysis of the data revealed that the warm-up segment differed significantly from the group and team segments. Instruction was the behavior with the highest percentage in both the group and team segments of practice. Looking at the entire practice, instruction was also the highest occurring behavior it had the greatest percentage and rpm than any other behavior category. Praise and hustle were also two of the highest occurring behaviors. There was a strong correlation between this study and other studies using the ASUOI and the Coaching Behavior Recording Form (CBRF) in regards to instruction being the highest occurring behavior category. It was concluded that a systematic effort was made by members of the coaching staff to adhere to transformational leadership strategies.

Health-promoting physical activity and extra-curricular sport

The primar y purpose of this explorator y study was to determine the percentage of time in which school pupils coached by teachers were engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during extra-curricular spor t practices. Three secondar y purposes of the study were to determine (a) the percentage of time allocated by teachers for pupils to engage in fitness activity or acquire health-related knowledge, (b) the percentage of time in which teachers used behaviours likely to encourage pupils to par ticipate in health-promoting physical activity, and (c) whether the percentages of time in which pupils were engaged in MVPA, allocated by teachers for pupils to par ticipate in fitness activity or acquire health-related knowledge and in which teachers promoted health-related physical activity, changed during the course of a spor ts season. Par ticipants were 20 high school teachers from Alabama responsible for coaching high school girls' basketball. One practice coached by each teacher was videotaped during the early-season, mid-season and late-season. Practices were coded with SOFIT, a systematic obser vation instrument designed to quantify factors thought to promote health-related fitness in instructional spor ting/activity contexts. Results indicated that pupils engaged in MVPA for 50.47 percent of their time but that ver y little time was allocated for fitness activity (1.96%) or for providing fitness knowledge (2.54%). In addition, teachers spent ver y little time promoting (0.52%) or demonstrating (0.18%) fitness. Patterns of pupil activity, practice context and teacher behaviour were consistent across the season.

A Five-Stage Process for Establishing Contextually Valid Systematic Observation Instruments: The Case of Rugby Union

The purpose of this paper is to propose a five-stage process for establishing both validity and reliability in new systematic observation instruments. The process is contextualized within the working behaviors of elite level rugby union coaches within the practice setting. The sequential stages began with observer training and progressed through the identification of coaching behaviors through induction (to establish content validity), to establishing face validity through a domain-referenced test. The objectivity and reliability of the developed behavioral classifications are determined through an interobserver agreement test while, finally, the researcher’s ability to reliably reproduce data with the developed instrument is determined using a test/retest intraobserver reliability check. The developed instrument (the Rugby Union Coaches Observation Instrument: RUCOI) is deemed able to record the situationally unique behaviors arising from the nature of the sport and of the elite standard, both of which were considered to impinge upon the pedagogical process in the said context.

The influence of a peer-tutoring training model for implementing cooperative groupings with elementary students

This study examined the effects of peer-tutoring training on elementary school student communication and collaboration skills when used in conjunction with cooperative learning. Within six classes (grades 2–6) in an inner-city school, cooperative learning pairs were randomly assigned to two groups (control and training). Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) of quantitative data from a systematic observation instrument used over an entire year showed that, in general, the training group surpassed the control group in both communication and collaborative skills. Students in grades 2–3 showed substantially more improvement than students in grades 4–6; also, students with average or below-average reading levels required more time to acquire these skills than did above-average students. The qualitative data further substantiated these findings while revealing a large variation among teachers in implementing cooperative learning.

Urban Teachersí Use of Productive and Reproductive Teaching Styles Within the Confines of the National Curriculum for Physical Education

The main purpose of this study was to describe the teaching styles employed by a sample of 18 teachers working in an urban setting under the conditions of the first revision of the National Curriculum for Physical Education. A second purpose was to compare the teaching styles used by this urban sample of teachers with those employed by a rural sample we had studied previously. Two lessons taught by each teacher to pupils in Years 7, 8, or 9 during one summer term were videotaped and coded with the Instrument for Identifying Teaching Styles, a systematic observation instrument designed to record the percentages of time in which teachers employ each of eight teaching styles. Descriptive statistics were computed across all 36 lessons and for lessons on striking/fielding games, track and field events, and tennis. Independent t-tests were used to compare the teaching styles used by the urban sample of teachers in the present study and those used by the rural sample previously studied. Results indicated that the teachers in the present study spent most of their time using direct styles of teaching. Their pattern of teaching style use was very similar to that of the rural teachers observed in the earlier study. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed.

Academic Learning Time—Physical Education (ALT-PE) of Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities in Regular Victorian Schools

The purpose was to describe the engagement of students with mild intellectual disabilities (MID) and their nondisabled peers (NDP) in regular physical education lessons and to determine whether this varied with gender, grade, or disability. Participants were 24 students with MID and 48 NDP Data on student behavior were gathered using an Academic Learning Time—Physical Education (ALT-PE) systematic observation instrument. Each lesson, including one student with MID and two same-gender NDP, was observed on five occasions (120 total). Data from primary and secondary levels were pooled. A MANOVA with PE Time, PE Engaged, Motor Engaged (ME), and Motor Appropriate (MA) as dependent measures revealed significant main effects for disability and gender. Follow-up analyses disclosed that the only difference between boys and girls was PE Time and that engagement level showed no difference. Students with MID spent significantly less time (p ≤ .01) than NDPs at each level.

Teachers’ Rules, Routines, and Expectations Prior to and Following the Implementation of the National Curriculum for Physical Education

Previous teacher effectiveness research has indicated that teachers who implement clear rules, routines, and performance expectations achieve more in terms of pupil learning (Sanford et al., 1983). One purpose of this study was to describe the rules established, routines employed, and expectations conveyed by a sample of British physical education teachers. The second purpose of the study was to discover whether or not the introduction of the National Curriculum for Physical Education (NCPE) in England and Wales led to changes in these managerial structures. Participants were 20 physical education teachers employed in the five secondary schools of one English town. During the summer term before the NCPE was introduced (1992) and two years after the NCPE was implemented (1994) two lessons taught by each teacher were videotaped. Lessons were coded with a modified version of Siedentop’ and Fink's (1987) Rules, Routines, and Expectations (RRE) instrument, a systematic observation instrument designed to record rules, routines, and expectations as they occur. Analysis involved comparing the type and number of rules, routines, and expectations observed during each summer term. In addition, the rates per five minutes that teachers used routines and conveyed expectations were computed for each lesson. These data were entered into a Statistical Analysis System (SAS) programme and descriptive statistics were computed across all 40 lessons for each summer term. Comparisons of how frequently teachers used routines or conveyed expectations during the two summer terms were made by employing independent t‐tests. Results indicated that none of the teachers employed rules either before or after the introduction of the NCPE. There were no major differences between the type and number of routines and expectations observed during the two summer terms. All 20 teachers employed stopping activity, equipment, gathering, organising, and starting activity routines during both observational periods. All 20 teachers also conveyed the expectation that pupils should learn skills and strategies and the majority conveyed the expectations that pupils should give maximum effort, pay attention, be on‐task, and be safe during both summer terms. These routines and expectations formed the core of each teacher's managerial system. There were no significant differences between the rates at which teachers employed routines or conveyed expectations during the two summer terms. The most frequently used routines were starting, activity, organising, and equipment. The most frequently conveyed expectation was that pupils should learn. These data support those who argue that invariably, the top‐down model of curriculum development seen in the introduction of the NCPE will make little difference to instructional practice.

PETE Program Assessment Within a Development, Research, and Improvement Framework

This paper describes a development, research, and improvement (DRI) framework for conducting comprehensive program assessment in physical education teacher education (PETE) programs. The DRI model has three main stages: development, research, and decision-making for improvement. Each stage is comprised of a series of questions that allow a PETE faculty to proceed through program assessment to arrive at a “custom made” plan. The framework functions mainly on the collection of valid and reliable data gathered by using existing systematic observation instruments, qualitative techniques, and psychometric instruments from the current sport pedagogy literature. The resulting data are then used to monitor students’ acquisition of the program’s intended pedagogical skills, content knowledge, performance knowledge, beliefs-attitudes, and professional dispositions. Having become a “learning organization,” the PETE faculty is then able to make more systematic decisions about improving selected program components.

The Effects of Teacher's Interaction Behaviors and their Ways of Expression on Student's Formative Evaluation to Physical Education Class

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of teacher's interaction behaviors and their ways of expression on the student's formative evaluation to physical education class. The subjects were 37 physical education classes instructed by 33 teachers of elementary school. The new observational demention containing the five categories were added on the systematic observation instrument for teacher interaction behavior. These categories were named as “interactive”, “transmittable”, “sympathetic”, “expression technique”, and “verbal content”.Main findings were as follows.1) “Questioning”, “acceptance (listening)” and “hustle” behaviors showed significant correlations with some student's evaluation items. But the relationship between “feedback” and the evaluation was not clear.2) “Interactive”, “transmittable”, and “sympathetic” ways of expression showed more positive relationship to the evaluation. However, “expression technique” and “verbal content” did not have the clear relationship.3) These results suggested that qualitative aspects of teacher's interaction behavior had more effect on the evaluation than their quantity (frequency).

Measuring Qualitative Aspects of Teaching in Physical Education

Abstract Few systematic observation instruments are available in physical education for measuring qualitative aspects of the teaching process. This article describes an instrument designed to measure the qualitative aspects of teaching in physical education. This instrument can be used to collect information about lesson introductions, task presentations, and lesson closures and is designed to be used with preservice and/or inservice teachers to improve quality of teaching.

A Comparison of Two Methods of Direct Instruction of Preservice Teachers

Two methods of delivering direct instruction were compared. Thirty-seven randomly selected juniors enrolled in a reading methods course were trained to use the Directed Reading Activity (DRA) delivered by lecture and discussion and were compared with 37 juniors instructed with videotape and simulation on their classroom teaching performance measured by a systematic observation in strument. Although there were no short-term differences in the performance of the two instruc tional groups, those instructed with videotape and simulation retained and used the information better over a longer period.

Student Learning as a Measure of Teacher Effectiveness in Physical Education

The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of two experienced and expert teachers on the degree of student learning in a second grade physical education class. A systematic observation instrument (QMTPS) and number of practice trials were utilized to collect data on teaching behaviors. The experimental teachers were videotaped for later analysis over a 3-week period. Students were pretested and posttested to determine the extent of learning in selected force production and reduction skills. Analysis of the data showed that for three of the four force production and reduction skills, learning did occur in the experimental group. Process characteristics of the experimental teachers were described.

The Development of a Computerized Coaching Analysis System for Recording Behavior in Sporting Environments

A computerized coaching analysis system (CCAS) is described, consisting of a series of systematic observation instruments that allow the collection of behavioral data on both the coach and the athlete. This system is composed of three interactive computer programs that structure the acquisition, immediate analysis, and storage of pertinent observable behaviors displayed by coaches and athletes during a typical coaching practice. Three separate observation instruments are outlined in detail and the discussion of their use centers on the general application of this technology in the sporting milieu.

Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head Football Coaches

The purpose of the study was to analyze the teaching/coaching behaviors of winning high school head football coaches during practice sessions. A systematic observation instrument with 11 specifically defined behavior categories was utilized to collect data on behaviors of 10 experienced winning coaches in the Phoenix, Arizona, metropolitan area during the 1982 season. Each coach was observed in three phases of the season: preseason, early season, and late season. Segments of the observed practices were classified as warm-up, group, team, or conditioning. Analysis of the data showed that the total rate per minute (RPM) for behaviors was higher in preseason than in either of the other two phases. Four of the 11 defined behavior categories (praise, scold, instruction, positive modeling) had significant differences (.05 level) in RPM between the preseason and the other two phases of the season. No significant differences were found between the early season and the late season phases. The group segment was used most in the preseason, while the team segment was used more of the time in the early season and late season. A lower RPM during the warm-up and conditioning segments indicated less involvement by the head coaches than in the group and team segments of practice.