Systematic Neglect Research Articles

Youth Restiveness and Credible Alternatives to Violence in Nigeria

No accessJournal of Human SecurityOther Journal Article01 January 2011Youth Restiveness and Credible Alternatives to Violence in Nigeria Authors: Oscar Edoror Ubhenin; Sylvester Enabunene Authors: Oscar Edoror Ubhenin Lecturer, Public Administration, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria Google Scholar More articles by this author ; Sylvester Enabunene Lecturer, Public Administration, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria Google Scholar More articles by this author SectionsAboutPDF/EPUBExport CitationsAdd to FavouriteAdd to FavouriteCreate a New ListNameCancelCreate ToolsTrack CitationsCreate Clip ShareFacebookTwitterLinkedIn COPY LINK Abstract This article examines the complicated and entrenched security dilemma in Nigeria. That dilemma is the increasing youth restiveness in the country. The article identified the factors behind the furtherance of youth restiveness in Nigeria. Principally, the systematic neglect of the productive segment of the population and the failure of the fundamental objectives and directive principles of state policy appear to have pre-ordained violence. This explains how marginalised and abandoned youths are the main instrument of violence attendant to all the ethnic conflicts in the country. Without excavating new approaches to conflict resolution and peacebuilding, the article has sought to chart, to the extent possible, a roadmap to implement such alternatives to violence. Credible alternatives will also help to address the core issues of tolerance and justice, which have become not only a national security issue but also an economic and political concern on a global scale. Finally, the article recommends alternatives to violence that are adopted with a clear sense of conscientiousness and commitment. Full Text DOI Previous article Next article RelatedDetails View PUBLICATION DETAILSDate of Publication:January 2011Journal:Journal of Human SecurityISSN:1835-3800Volume:7Issue:1Page Range:53-67First Page:53Last Page:67Source:Journal of Human Security, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2011: 53-67Date Last Modified:05 September 2018 12:24Date Last Revised:06 October 2012Geographic LocationNigeriaSubjectViolencePolitical scienceEthnic conflictHuman securityYouth--AttitudesSocial history METRICS Downloaded 0 times Copyright© Human Security Institute, 2011Download PDFLoading ...

Asymmetries in predictive and diagnostic reasoning.

In this article, we address the apparent discrepancy between causal Bayes net theories of cognition, which posit that judgments of uncertainty are generated from causal beliefs in a way that respects the norms of probability, and evidence that probability judgments based on causal beliefs are systematically in error. One purported source of bias is the ease of reasoning forward from cause to effect (predictive reasoning) versus backward from effect to cause (diagnostic reasoning). Using causal Bayes nets, we developed a normative formulation of how predictive and diagnostic probability judgments should vary with the strength of alternative causes, causal power, and prior probability. This model was tested through two experiments that elicited predictive and diagnostic judgments as well as judgments of the causal parameters for a variety of scenarios that were designed to differ in strength of alternatives. Model predictions fit the diagnostic judgments closely, but predictive judgments displayed systematic neglect of alternative causes, yielding a relatively poor fit. Three additional experiments provided more evidence of the neglect of alternative causes in predictive reasoning and ruled out pragmatic explanations. We conclude that people use causal structure to generate probability judgments in a sophisticated but not entirely veridical way.

Memoria y resiliencia estudio de la memoria de las victimas del conflicto armado en el departamento del Magdalena: presentificacion visibilizacion, catarsis y resiliencia

<p>Las víctimas de la violencia en el Departamento del Magdalena han sido silenciadas de Comunicación social y periodismo de la Universidad Sergio Arboleda seccional Santa Marta.</p><p>por el olvido sistemático del gobierno, de la sociedad en general y de los medios masivos de comunicación, que al establecer sus agendas de contenidos, no tienen en cuenta el sufrimiento casi permanente de los tradicionalmente excluidos de la sociedad. En ese proceso de negación constante y de aplazamiento de los derechos de las personas en condición de desplazados forzosos, las víctimas de la violencia desarrollan interna y externamente resiliencia. El presente artículo, retoma de forma general los aspectos claves de la investigación, sobre memoria y resiliencia que actualmente desarrolla la Escuela de Comunicación social y periodismo de la Universidad Sergio Arboleda seccional Santa Marta.</p>

AIDS Exceptionalism: On the Social Psychology of HIV Prevention Research

The current analysis considers the HIV prevention research record in the social sciences. We do so with special reference to what has been termed "AIDS Exceptionalism"- departures from standard public health practice and prevention research priorities in favor of alternative approaches to prevention that, it has been argued, emphasize individual rights at the expense of public health protection. In considering this issue, we review the historical context of the HIV epidemic; empirically demonstrate a pattern of prevention research characterized by systematic neglect of prevention interventions for HIV-infected persons; and articulate a rationale for "Prevention for Positives," supportive prevention efforts tailored to the needs of HIV+ individuals. We then propose a social psychological conceptualization of processes that appear to have influenced developments in HIV prevention research and directed its focus to particular target populations. Our concluding section considers whether there are social and research policy lessons to be learned from the record of HIV prevention research that might improve our ability to addresses effectively, equitably, and in timely fashion future epidemics that play out, as HIV does, at the junction of biology and behavior. At the first quarter century of the AIDS epidemic, it is important to weigh our accomplishments against our failures in the fight against AIDS…Future historians will conclude that we cannot escape responsibility for our failure to use effective, scientifically proven strategies to control the AIDS epidemic…They will also likely regard as tragic those instances when we allowed scarce resources to be used to support ideologically driven "prevention" that only served a particular political agenda.Editorial: A Quarter Century of AIDS. American Journal of Public Health. (Stall & Mills, 2006, p. 961).

The Role of Religion, Spirituality and Faith in Development: a critical theory approach

Religion, spirituality and faith have suffered from long-term and systematic neglect in development theory, policy making and practice, although there has been a noticeable turnover the past 10 years. This paper explores the role of religion, spirituality and faith in development in the past, present and future by applying three core concepts from critical theory—grounding of knowledge in historical context, critique through dialectical process, and identification of future potentialities for emancipation and self-determination. It concludes that religion, spirituality and faith have a role to play in the future of development, particularly in ensuring that it is appropriate and sustainable. The paper also serves to counter critics who claim that critical theory has no resonance to contemporary social research.

A SOCIOLINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE OF THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES OF BOTSWANA

The indigenous communities of Botswana discussed in this paper are gener- ally referred to as the Khoisan (Khoesan). While there are debates on the common origins of Khoisan communities, the existence of at least fi ve language families suggests a separate evolution that resulted in major grammatical and lexical differences between them. Due to historical confl icts with neighboring groups, they have been pushed far into the most inhos- pitable areas of the regions where they presently live. The most signifi cant victimization of Khoisan groups by the linguistic majority has been the systematic neglect of their languages and cultures. In fact, social and development programs have attempted to assimilate them into so-called majority ethnic groups and into modernity, and their languages have been dif- fi cult to conserve in contact situations. This paper provides an overview of these indigenous communities of Botswana and contributes to ongoing research of the region. I discuss rea- sons for the communities' vulnerability by examining their demography, current localities, and language vitality. I also analyze some adverse effects of development and the danger the Khoisan face due to negative social and political attitudes, and formulate critical areas of in- tervention for the preservation of these indigenous languages.

Allegory, Capital, Modernity: Peer Gynt and Ibsen's Modern Breakthrough

It is one of the least challenged suppositions of Ibsen criticism that Peer Gynt offers a satirical portrait of the titular hero's escapist flights of fancy.1 According to this canonical view, Ibse...

Evangelicalism and Patristic Christianity: 1517 to the present

In the last twenty years, persons departing from Evangelicalism have regularly alleged this movement’s systematic neglect of early Christianity as a primary warrant for their re-affiliation to other branches of the Christian family. The complaint has become so widespread that it has now come to be embraced as self-evidently accurate; no burden of proof has been laid on those pressing the charge. Yet a historical survey of five centuries discloses that to whatever extent early Christianity has been neglected in the recent past, this neglect has characterized liberal as well as evangelical Protestantism. In the more distant evangelical Protestant past, the period 1500-1900 was characterized by a much deeper familiarity with the Early Church and a much freer appropriation of its teaching and practices. The current upswing of interest in the Early Church provides Evangelicalism with an opportunity to reassert its earlier interest in and creative use of Patristic resources.

An Amateur of Quality: Postwar French Cinema and Jean-Pierre Melville’s Le Silence de la mer

I consider myself an amateur, and I'd like to remain that way. This may not seem very modest, but as Flaherty said, cinema, change Isn't brought about by professionals, but by amateurs. -Jean Rouch EVERY CINEPHILE HAS A FAVORITE IMAGE of Jean-Pierre Melville. Nowadays, admiration for Melville's distinctive films and the legend of their maverick creator resonates widely in cinema culture. A still from an interview with the French filmmaker Cedric Klapisch in a recent issue of Premere magazine provides one such point of departure (Gravelines 90). Klapisch is shot in high contrast black-and-white, posed insouciantly in a dark, beat-up leather jacket. A 1940s gangster-style fedora, its brim pulled down low over the director's eyes, casts a long shadow over his impassive facial features. The portrait is labeled simply: Melvillian chic.1 In visual shorthand, Klapisch's photo-homage invokes succinctly an aesthetic of the underworld-rogue and taciturn masculinity, defiance, the suggestion of criminality, a distant echo of Hollywood and film noir. More than thirty years after his death, here and elsewhere, Melville's reputation reaches powerfully into the twenty-first century. Melville today is a mythologized auteur, hailed as much for his unconventional persona as for his actual films. Offscreen, Melville is remembered as a dynamic, outspoken, cigarsmoking iconoclast in a Stetson. Onscreen, he is celebrated for a career of fetishized films: the underground Resistance parable Le Silence de la mer [The Silence of the Sea] (1949), the offbeat New Wave harbinger Bob le flambeur [Bob The Gambler] (1956), policiers such as Le Doulos [The Finger Man] (1962) and Le Deuxieme souffle [The Second Breath] (1966), and muted thrillers like Le Samourai [The Godson] (1967) and Le Cercle rouge [The Red Circle] (1970). Known for his collaborations with iconic French stars-Jean-Paul Belmondo, Alain Delon, Lino Ventura, Catherine Deneuve-Melville is also famed for his fierce creative independence. Later in life, he bought and ran his own film studio, doggedly controlled his productions, and became a cited inspiration for filmmakers as diverse as Jean-Luc Godard, Ingmar Bergman, Neil Jordan (who remade Sob le flambeur, as The Good Thief, in 2003), John Woo, and Quentin Tarantino. Melville's career is at last being reappraised, and its significance is belatedly emerging. In 2002, Richard Neupert's invaluable survey, A History of the French New Wave Cinema argued for Melville as a renegade role model, in style and technique, for the Young Turks that followed him (63-72). In July 2003, the British Film Institute officially recognized Melville's body of work by hosting a complete retrospective of his films. Later that same year, Ginette Vincendeau's monograph, lean-Pierre Melville: An American in Paris, outlined Melville's career through textual analyses of his films, in particular their representation of gender. More recently still, high profile 35mm and DVD restorations have made Melville's once-obscure films, notably Le Cercle rouge, available for a new generation of enthusiasts. Despite these advances, our knowledge of Melville's emergence in the 1940s, and, concomitantly, his formative role in postwar French film history, is far from complete. Most studies of Melville, indeed, continue to appraise him in abstract terms, as the source of cultural discourse, an artist ripe for interpretation. Such approaches have led to a systematic neglect of the logistics and practical contexts that shaped Melville's filmmaking directly. Most crucially, Melville's radical position as a self-styled amateur-his work as the producer as well as the director of his films-has been widely ignored. Hence, vital questions remain unasked and unanswered. As Melville began his career in cinema, which industrial imperatives did he react against? Why was piecemeal, nonprofessional independence Melville's solution? And how did these unorthodox methods manifest a controversial yet influential new model of individualized production? …

Framing a Deterritorialized, Hybrid Alternative to Nationalist Essentialism in the Postcolonial Era: Tjalie Robinson and the Diasporic Eurasian “Indo” Community

In her study of Transnational South Asians (2008), Susan Koshy highlights the systematic neglect by scholars of the perspectives and activities of such seemingly peripheral actors as diasporic subjects in the macro-narratives of nationalism and globalization. Such neglect was even more pronounced in the case of the “repatriates” from European colonies in Asia and Africa. The epistemological implications of the dislocated, de-territorialized discourse produced by repatriates from former European colonies remain largely overlooked. One of those groups that seem to have slipped between the pages of history is the diasporic Eurasian “Indo” community that has its roots in the former Dutch East Indies. In this article, I focus on Tjalie Robinson, the intellectual leader of this community from the 1950s to the mid-1970s. In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in what Homi Bhabha, in The Location of Culture (1994, 38), called “the conceptualization of an international culture, based not on the exoticism of multiculturalism or the diversity of cultures, but on the inscription and articulation of culture’s hybridity.” Long before Bhabha, Robinson had already published substantially on hybrid, transnational identity. As the son of a Dutch father and a British-Javanese mother, Robinson had made a name in Indonesia with his writings. He left Indonesia in 1954, and soon became the leading voice of the diasporic Indo community in the Netherlands and, later, also in the United States. His engagement resulted in the founding of the Indo magazine Tong Tong and the annual Pasar Malam, the world’s biggest Eurasian festival. With his writings, Robinson played an essential role in the cultural awareness and self-pride of the Indo community through the acceptance of their essentially hybrid and transnational identity.

The Bioethics of War

The Bioethics of War Jonathan H. Marks (bio) The demands of national security can place tremendous pressure on ethics. Since 9/11, professionals of all kinds—from doctors and lawyers to journalists and academics—have felt the need to reconsider and in some cases reformulate accepted understandings of their ethical responsibilities. Yet history shows that the urgent re-framing of ethical norms in order to serve the ends of national security can often be a matter of profound regret once the apparent threat subsides. The recent publication of two books tackling the relationship between medical ethics and national security is therefore to be welcomed. These texts are not alternatives, but counterweights to each other. One, written by an American physician and well-known bioethicist, seeks to reaffirm the therapeutic and caring roles of medical professionals and to resist those who would subvert—and have subverted—those roles in the name of counterterrorism. The other, written by an Israeli political scientist who focuses on bioethics, seeks to challenge perceived wisdom regarding the ethical responsibilities of health professionals in the face of war and terrorism. Steve Miles tells us that he was prompted to write Oath Betrayed by the nagging question: "Where were the doctors and nurses at Abu Ghraib?" To answer this question, however, one must look beyond the walls of the infamous prison. As Miles's book makes clear, the complicity of health care professionals in detainee abuse in the war on terror is not confined to Abu Ghraib, and it raises several legal and ethical questions of substantial import. The book begins with a brief history of torture—both licit and illicit—and draws repeatedly on legal materials such as the Geneva Conventions and the Torture Convention. But Oath Betrayed is an avowedly ethical rather than legal account, albeit one that draws rhetorical force from legal materials as well as codes of medical ethics. Examining the conduct of several military medical personnel through this lens, Miles finds his subjects—many of whom are named—more than wanting. He claims that physicians and psychologists may collaborate with those who torture or abuse prisoners in six ways: by certifying prisoners as fit for harsh interrogation; by monitoring and treating them during interrogation; by concealing evidence of abuse through the design of "nonscarifying techniques" or failure to record injuries in medical documents; by conducting abusive research; by overseeing the systematic neglect of prisoners' basic needs, including health care; and by keeping silent while abuse is ongoing (p. 31). Miles sought evidence of such complicity by perusing thousands of pages of documents obtained by the American Civil Liberties Union, together with press clippings, military reports, and already-published work. With the notable exception of abusive research, he finds incriminating material for most kinds of complicity in his taxonomy. Complicity is, of course, more readily understood in some cases than in others. A physician at Abu Ghraib once told me, for example, that two of his platoon medics initially kept silent about the abuse of a prisoner when thinly veiled threats were made on their lives. (The same physician also described severely limited medical resources at the Abu Ghraib facility—a problem, he claimed, he had not been in a position to remedy.) However, the systematic involvement of health professionals in aggressive interrogation is, for many, the most troubling form of complicity. Acting as behavioral science consultants, psychiatrists and psychologists at Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib advised interrogators on how to conduct interrogations that exposed detainees to severe physical and psychological stressors. Miles's description of these techniques as "non-scarifying" is somewhat puzzling, since many psychological stressors were designed specifically to scare the detainees. Preexisting phobias—in one case, fear of the dark (recorded on a detainee's medical records)—were deliberately exploited. Miles reserves some of his harshest criticisms for behavioral scientists. "It is one thing," he observes, for "clinicians to train an interrogator in rapport-building and cross-cultural communication. It is quite another to use psychological, medical and cultural information (especially when obtained in a clinical encounter) to degrade, frighten or inflict physical distress on a person" (p. 67). The Department of Defense has defended physicians acting as behavioral science...

「価値判断」の分析可能性について

The relationship between descriptions which sociology makes and the value judgment of the sociologist in making such descriptions has long been recognized as a serious problem for sociology. Sociologists traditionally have struggled to exclude this judgment from description, or more recently, insist that such judgment should be included in description. In this paper, I suggest that such a dichotomy based on inclusion versus exclusion is predicated on the on the systematic neglect of at least one sort of social phenomenon which sociology can/should describe in its own right.

Caloric restriction for longevity: II—The systematic neglect of behavioural and psychological outcomes in animal research

AbstractResearch on caloric restriction for longevity (CRL) has generated hundreds of articles on the physiology of food deprivation, yet almost no data on consequences in other domains. The first paper in this series outlined the generally positive physical effects of CRL; the second analyses the meagre and sometimes disturbing record of research on behaviour, cognition and affect. The available evidence suggests that nutrient‐dense CRL in animals—just like nutrient‐poor semi‐starvation in people—is associated with a number of adverse effects. Changes include abnormal food‐related behaviour, heightened aggression and diminished sexual activity. Studies of learning and memory in underfed rodents yield inconsistent findings; no information is available on cognitive effects in primates. To date, the CRL field has ignored other variables that are crucial to the human case and known to be disrupted by chronic hunger, including sociability, curiosity and emotionality. Promotion of CRL for people is irresponsible in the absence of more reassuring data on the full range of expected outcomes. Eating disorder specialists should be contributing to scientific and public discussions of this increasingly prominent paradigm. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.

The Dating of Rock Art: a Critique

The methods for estimating the antiquity of rock art are reviewed critically, dividing them into traditional and scientific approaches. The reliability of both is examined critically. It seems that the most promising options have attracted only limited interest, while those methods that have been afforded the most sustained research efforts have been discredited or provide only tenuous results. Thus the continuing difficulties in this field are to some extent attributable to opportunistic use of sophisticated but not always appropriate technology, combined with a systematic neglect of more modest but dependable methods.

Interatomic electron transport by semiempirical andab initiotight-binding approaches

A unified approach to interatomic electron transport within Kubo linear-response theory is sketched that is applicable both in semiempirical (matrix-element-based) and ab initio (wave-function-based) tight-binding (TB) techniques. This approach is based on a systematic neglect of the electron motion inside the atomic (Wigner-Seitz) cells leading thus to velocity operators describing pure intersite hopping. This is achieved by using piecewise constant coordinates, i.e., coordinates that are constant inside the cells. The formalism is presented within the simple semiempirical TB method, the TB linear muffin-tin orbital (LMTO) method, and the screened Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker (KKR) method with emphasis on the formal analogy of the derived formulas. The results provide a justification of current assumptions used in semiempirical TB schemes, an assessment of properties of recent TB-LMTO approaches, and an alternative formulation of electron transport within the screened KKR method. The formalism is illustrated by a calculation of residual resistivity of substitutionally disordered fcc Ag-Pd alloys.

Caught in the trio trap? Potential selection bias inherent to association studies using parent-offspring trios.

During the last years, the validity of classic case control studies in psychiatric genetic research has been increasingly under question due to the risk of population stratification problems inherent to this type of association study. By consequence, the application of family-based association studies using parent-offspring trios has been strongly advocated. Recently, however, in a study comparing clinical characteristics between index patients from parent-offspring trios and singleton patients with bipolar affective disorder, the question was raised whether a systematic neglect of case control association studies could lead to a selection bias of susceptibility genes. In a similar approach, we compared demographic and clinical characteristics of 122 singleton bipolar patients with those of 54 bipolar patients derived from parent-offspring trios. The singleton patients did not only present with a higher age of onset, but also with a higher frequency of suicidal behavior and a higher familial loading for suicidality. These findings suggest that the genetic mechanism for disease might be different between trio-based and classic case control samples, where patients are examined whose parents are not available for genetic studies. Thus, giving up case control designs for the sake of family-based association studies could be at the risk of selecting against several genetically determined factors.

Support Funding for Australian Rural and Remote Health Workforce: A Medical - Nursing Mismatch

Successive Australian federal governments have introduced numerous strategies aimed at reducing the differentials in health status between rural and remote populations and their metropolitan counterparts. Foremost among these strategies have been those focused on increasing the numbers of medical practitioners in rural and remote areas (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 1998a). The paper challenges the prioritisation of this strategy, identified as a "planning priority" by the Commonwealth government. The 1999-2000 Federal Budget allocated $171 million to "significantly improve access to services in rural and remote areas of Australia and to strengthen the rural workforce". Nurses provide 90% of the health services to these populations yet receive only 0.9% of funding in direct role specific support. This systematic neglect of nursing services results in high turnover as nurses desert their posts, frustrated by lack of organisational support, and subsequent inability to provide adequate care in the difficult circumstances in which they must function. Interruptions to clinical health care provision and health promotion activities diminish health enhancement opportunities for the communities with demonstrated high levels of need (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 1999; Commonwealth Department of Health & Aged Care, 2000; Kreger, 1991; NSW Health Department, 1998).

Use-Novelty, Severity, and a Systematic Neglect of Relevant Alternatives

This paper analyzes Deborah Mayo's recent criticism of use-novelty requirement. She claims that her severity criterion captures actual scientific practice better than use-novelty, and that use-novelty is not a necessary condition for severity. Even though certain cases in which evidence used for the construction of the hypothesis can test the hypothesis severely, I do not think that her severity criterion fits better with our intuition about good tests than use-novelty. I argue for this by showing a parallelism in terms of severity between the confidence interval case and what she calls ‘gellerization’. To account for the difference between these cases, we need to take into account certain additional considerations like a systematic neglect of relevant alternatives.

Incompatibility between local realism and quantum mechanics for pairs of neutral kaons

A local realistic theory of single neutral kaons and of correlated neutral kaon pairs is formulated by deducing the most general consequences of three assumptions: (i) the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) reality criterion, (ii) locality, and (iii) no retroactive causality. Variables must be introduced for every kaon determining the stable $\mathrm{CP}$ value and the variable value of strangeness $S.$ Instantaneous $S$ jumps are shown to take place. If kaon pairs are produced in \ensuremath{\Phi} meson decays, the local realistic probability of observing ${\overline{K}}^{0}{\overline{K}}^{0}$ pairs at certain different proper times necessarily differs by 30% from the quantum-mechanical predictions. The size of this difference justifies our systematic neglect of $\mathrm{CP}$ violation. A \ensuremath{\Phi} factory is thus shown to provide a unique tool for the study of the EPR problem

Our children's toxic legacy: how science and law fail to protect us from pesticides

During this century, hundreds of billions of pounds of pesticides have been released to the global environment. How are we exposed to them? What can we do to protect ourselves? In this extraordinary analysis, John Wargo, one of the nation's leading experts in pesticide policy, traces the history of pesticide law and science, with a focus on the special hazards faced by children. By 1969, nearly 60,000 separate pesticide products were registered for use by the U.S. government, each with the expectation that pesticides could be used safely, that they quickly broke down into harmless substances, or that dangerous levels of exposure could be accurately predicted and somehow avoided. Faith in these assumptions was gradually eroded as experts grew to understand the persistence, movement, and toxicity of the chemicals involved. Nevertheless, government continues to hold the discretion to balance risks against economic benefits in its licensing decisions. The underlying legal strategy, Wargo claims, has been one that places extraordinary faith in government's ability to somehow ensure that only safe levels of contamination and exposure occur. And the effect has been systematic neglect of those exposures and risks faced by children. Wargo presents a compelling case that children are more heavily exposed to some pesticides than adults and are especially vulnerable to some adverse effects. How should the fractured body of environmental law be repaired to manage the distribution of risk? This is the central question Wargo addresses as he suggests fundamental reforms of science and law necessary to understand and contain the health risks faced by children.