Mandate System Research Articles

K voprosu o mandatnoj sisteme Ligi Nacij: vzglyad iz XXI v.

The mandate system of the League of Nations was created as a compromise between the colonial interests of the victorious powers and the new ‘internationalist’ principles in international relations. It therefore had the same “inherent flaws” as the new organization as a whole. Despite a number of undoubtedly progressive provisions enshrined in Article 22 of the League's constitution, its implementation faced problems due to a lack of clear powers and mechanisms to curb abuses. As a result, its relevant bodies had to rely primarily on the “internationalization” of controversial issues, publicity and moral pressure from the international community to curb the arbitrariness of the mandatorial powers.

Partisan science and the democratic legitimacy ideal

The democratic legitimacy ideal requires value judgments in science to be legitimised by democratic procedures in order for them to reflect the public interest or democratic aims. Such a view has been explicitly defended by Intemann (2015) and Schroeder (2021), amongst others, and reflects a more widely shared commitment to a democratisation of science and integration of public participation procedures. This paper suggests that the democratic legitimacy ideal in its current form does not leave space for partisan science – science that is politically or societally engaged. This is problematic because partisan research can contribute substantially to science and society, a point that I will illustrate with a recent case study from the Netherlands. To resolve this problem, I scrutinise the notion of democratic legitimacy and consider its use in the values in science discourse. Current discussions focus on democratic decision-making procedures to legitimise specific value judgements. I show that this focus does not adequately represent sound procedures of legitimisation at the hand of political theories of representation. Consequently, I develop a different approach: I propose to consider scientists as a special case of representatives who are authorised to make independent value judgements while nevertheless being constrained by the demands of their constituencies. Based on this approach, I argue that values in science do not need to be based on democratically agreed upon aims or the public interest in every instance. Instead, I advocate for a pluralist system of scientific mandates, which differs from both value pluralism and the democratic legitimacy ideal.

An Evaluation of the Chinese CollegeAdmission Examination System from the Standpoint of Equity in Public Policy

The provincial education examination institution mandate system for Chinas college entrance examination was approved by the relevant national department or is implementing an independent proposition. It is uniformly dispatched by the Ministry of Education and implemented and managed by the provincial enrollment and examination committees. Its nature dictates that social justice must exist. The battle for college entrance exams has grown more intense as the number of exams for admission to colleges continues to rise. Then came the sociological phenomenon of immigrants taking college admission exams. This article will use the phenomenon of college entrance examination immigration as an illustration to explain the need for its public policy for the equitable distribution of social value through a thorough analysis of college entrance examination admissions. The fairness of the new college entrance exam system must be continually improved. To take into account the interests of all parties and maximize the overall efficacy of public policy, social values must be distributed fairly.

Palestine and the British Empire in US Political Cartoons, 1917-1919

The article is devoted to the analysis of the process of formation of the image of Palestine and the British Empire at the end of the First World War. On the basis of the materials of American cartoons and periodicals, the main points in the evolution of the attitude of American society to Palestine are considered, the complexities and contradictions in understanding the features of the British Empire are shown. The study of cartoons will help determine the nature of the interaction of textual and visual images in the US media during the discussion of the results of the First World War, the Treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations and the mandate system. Based on the study of cartoons, two stages in the perception of Palestine in the United States are distinguished: 1) “romantic” and 2) “critical”. New images of Palestine, the British colonial empire, and the Middle East first appeared in newspaper articles, and only later in cartoons. The debate between apologetic and critical strands of US public opinion regarding Palestine and the British model of internal security in the colonies became in 1919 one element of a more global debate between Democrats and Republicans about the role of the US in the League of Nations.

신탁통치제도의 국제법적 고찰

This article attempted to critically examine the trusteeship system established based on the UN Charter. Furthermore, it intended to clarify whether the trusteeship system contributed to overcoming the decolonization of international law. To this end, it examined the process of transferring the mandate system to the trusteeship system as the League of Nations was dissolved. In addition, it identified implications of the trusteeship system by reviewing the obligations under sacred trust for civilization and submitting a petition and objective of the trusteeship system.
 An overall review of the trusteeship system shows that it was established by modifying and supplementing the shortcomings of the mandate system. The trusteeship system stipulated the open-door policy in the UN Charter, which aimed at international peace, security, and economic peace, and tried to grant nationality and rights to the peoples of the trust territories. Therefore, it can be evaluated that the trusteeship system showed greater efforts to overcome colonialism under international law than the mandate system in the past.
 However, according to the judgments associated with South West Africa and certain phosphate lands in the Nauru cases, the authorities for administration violated their obligations within the trusteeship system. First, it was confirmed through the Northern Cameroon case that the obligations of mandate powers, which were confirmed in the previous mandate system, were maintained in the trusteeship system. Second, in phosphate lands in the Nauru case, the ICJ confirmed that the violation of the mandate's obligations, which began in the mandate system, continued in the trusteeship system. Finally, in the case pertaining to South West Africa, the ICJ stated that the violation of the mandate's obligations, which began in the mandate system, continued in the UN system.
 Through this study, it can be seen that while the trusteeship system contributed to overcoming the decolonization of international law, the violation of obligations of the mandate powers continued in both the UN system and the trusteeship system.

Territory in the Work of the Institut de Droit International

This essay reviews the work of the Institut de Droit International, for the occasion of the 150th anniversary of its founding in 1873, that addresses the acquisition or status of territory during the epochs of imperialism, sacred trust of civilization, and territorial administration by or under the United Nations. Section A of this essay introduces the work in a summary fashion. Section B briefly describes the context for each epoch. Section C highlights the challenges and controversies in each epoch surrounding the related topics studied by the Institute. Section D analyzes the three resultant resolutions. Section E briefly comments on the impact of the work, and Section F concludes by taking a look into the future. By and large, the work of the Institute relating to acquisition or status of territory stays very close to the leitmotifs or practices of the different epochs, although one can glean glimpses of inching forward on the part of the Institute, or more so of certain members. Notable examples are its assessment that notice of occupation is required to make it effective and may be done in the normal way of giving publicity to official acts or through the diplomatic channel, and its view on the international mandates system that, “The communities under mandate are subjects of international law. They have a patrimony distinct from that of the mandatory State; they possess a national status, and they may acquire rights or be held to their obligations.” The Institute’s work can be considered solid “codification” efforts. As such, the work, just like any other private codification efforts, may conceivably contribute to the strengthening of the relevant practice, for good or ill, or for good and ill, as we can see that such practice in the past, together with the codification that aspired to reflect it, can never catch up with the future.

The Abstraction of Sovereignty: The Ottoman Empire in Early Twentieth-Century Socialist Thought

Abstract This article examines the way British socialists came to provide intellectual and political weight to the ‘internationalizing’ of non-European territory during and after the First World War. While there is now a substantial body of scholarship articulating the continuities between Victorian liberal imperialism and the liberal internationalism of the early twentieth century that gave rise, most notably, to the League of Nations’ mandates system, parallel developments within socialist thought in Britain have been less readily noted. Critically, leading Fabian Society intellectuals reaffirmed the late nineteenth-century belief that European powers had the legal as well as moral right to partition and internationalize territories and markets in the name of preserving peace and advancing prosperity. Indeed, in the drive to produce conceptually robust positions on problems of world order, in certain respects socialists went furthest in scope and ambition. An aspect of this dynamic is explored here by paying particular attention to the place of the Ottoman Empire in socialist discussions of international government and the mandates system.

The Imperial Precipice: Jurists and Diplomats of the French Empire at the United Nations War Crimes Commission

Abstract Delving into world-spanning legal agencies, histories of exiled diplomats and lawyers, this paper explores how Free France defended at the United Nations War Crimes Commission the vision of the interwar liberal order, one that reached across the global territories of the mandate system administered by the League of Nations, into the colonial territories of the French empire. From London to Chongqing, facing Vichy collaborationist authoritarian dictatorship in metropolitan France and anti-colonial pressures from the turbulent colonial frontiers, a handful of Free French jurists and politicians worked day and night to establish the imperial sovereignty of the French exile committee of general Charles de Gaulle, and restore French republicanism rooted in the legal tradition of Nicolas Fouquet, Jacques de Maleville and Léon Duguit. Drawing upon newly-unsealed UN and French archival materials, this paper documents Free France’s intervention at the UNWCC, the activities of its representatives and reflection on empires, race and international law.

Empires of Antiquities: Modernity and Discovery of the Ancient Near East, 1914–1950

Empires of Antiquities: Modernity and Discovery of the Ancient Near East, 1914–1950

Electronic prescribing systems as tools to improve patient care: a learning health systems approach to increase guideline concordant prescribing for venous thromboembolism prevention

BackgroundVenous thromboembolism (VTE) causes significant mortality and morbidity in hospitalised patients. Risk factors for VTE are well known and there are validated risk assessment tools to support the use of prophylactic therapies. In England, reporting the percentage of patients with a completed VTE risk assessment is mandated, but this does not include whether that risk assessment resulted in appropriate prescribing. Full guideline compliance, defined as an assessment which led to an appropriate action—here prescribing prophylactic low molecular weight heparin where indicated, is rarely reported. Education, audit and feedback enhance guideline compliance but electronic prescribing systems (EPS) can mandate guideline-compliant actions. We hypothesised that a systems-based EPS intervention (prescribing rules which mandate approval or rejection of a proposed prescription of prophylactic low molecular weight heparin based on the mandated VTE assessment) would increase full VTE guideline compliance more than interventions which focused on targeting individual prescribers.MethodsAll admitted patients within University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust were included for analysis between 2011 and 2020. The proportion of patients who received a fully compliant risk assessment and action was assessed over time. Interventions included teaching sessions and face-to-face feedback based on measured performance (an approach targeting individual prescribers) and mandatory risk assessment and prescribing rules into an EPS (a systems approach).ResultsData from all 235,005 admissions and all 5503 prescribers were included in the analysis. Risk assessments were completed in > 90–95% of all patients at all times, but full guideline compliance was lower (70% at the start of this study). Face-to-face feedback improved full VTE guideline compliance from 70 to 77% (p ≤ 0.001). Changes to the EPS to mandate assessment with prescribing rules increased full VTE compliance to 95% (p ≤ 0.001). Further amendments to the EPS system to reduce erroneous VTE assessments slightly reduced full compliance to 92% (p < 0.001), but this was then maintained including during changes to the low molecular weight heparin used for VTE prophylaxis.DiscussionAn EPS-systems approach was more effective in improving sustained guideline-compliant VTE prevention over time. Non-compliance remained at 8–5% despite this mandated system. Further research is needed to assess the potential reasons for this.

A Review of Modern International Law on the Expansion of Colonies

The study begins with questions about Japan s colonization of the Korean Peninsula under international law. Currently, the international community is actively debating the establishment of comfort facilities for Asian women, including the peoples of the Korean Peninsula, who were colonized by Japan during the Sino-Japanese War, and were put into forced labor following the national recruitment order. In South Korea, the research focuses on the treaties signed between Japan and South Korea from the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War in 1914 through 1910, as well as comfort women, and forced labor. However, Japan continues to argue that while its annexation of Korea was unjustified, it was not a violation of international law due to the absence of multilateral treaties on colonial expansion and few judicial bodies or international conferences. In order to elucidate the Japanese annexation of the Korean Peninsula, which is closely linked to Korea s identity, international law research on colonial expansion in the 19th and early 20 centuries is needed. Furthermore, given the fact that international law evolved in the process of the expansion of European colonies, such research is crucial for the correct understanding of contemporary international law. This study analyzes the “European International Law” of colonial expansion by examining 19th and early 20th-century bilateral treaties, state practice, and the views of international jurists. The definition of colonies as defined in international law at the time is explored, and the concept of territorial acquisition and trust to colonial peoples of European countries are also discussed. Additionally, it reviews a non-annexation declaration agreed upon at the Paris Peace Conference. In addition, it examines the human rights norms applied to the mandate system, a territorial management system operated by the League of Nations. Furthermore, this study applies the international law on colonial expansion discussed in Chapter 2 to cases involving Japanese colonial expansion. Japan began colonial expansion at the end of the 19th century when it joined the “Family of Nations”, comprising “European Christian countries.” The international community criticized Japan s ambition to expand its colonies against European international law for its colonization of the Korean peninsula, the Manchurian Incident, the Sino-Japanese War, and the mandate of the South Sea Islands.

Empires of Antiquities: Modernity and the Rediscovery of the Ancient Near East, 1914–1950

Empires of Antiquities: Modernity and the Rediscovery of the Ancient Near East, 1914–1950

Development, implementation and evaluation of an early warning system improvement programme for children in hospital: the PUMA mixed-methods study

Background The Paediatric early warning system Utilisation and Morbidity Avoidance (PUMA) study was commissioned to develop, implement and evaluate a paediatric track-and-trigger tool for widespread adoption. Following findings from three systematic reviews, revised aims focused on implementation of a whole-systems improvement programme. Objectives (1) Identify, through systematic review, the following: evidence for core components of effective paediatric track-and-trigger tools and paediatric early warning systems, and contextual factors consequential for paediatric track-and-trigger tool and early warning system effectiveness. (2) Develop and implement an evidence-based paediatric early warning system improvement programme (i.e. the PUMA programme). (3) Evaluate the effectiveness of the PUMA programme by examining clinical practice and core outcomes trends. (4) Identify ingredients of successful implementation of the PUMA programme. Review methods The quantitative reviews addressed the following two questions: how well validated are existing paediatric track-and-trigger tools and their component parts for predicting inpatient deterioration? How effective are paediatric early warning systems (with or without a tool) at reducing mortality and critical events? The qualitative review addressed the following question: what sociomaterial and contextual factors are associated with successful or unsuccessful paediatric early warning systems (with or without tools)? Design Interrupted time series and ethnographic case studies were used to evaluate the PUMA programme. Qualitative methods were deployed in a process evaluation. Setting The study was set in two district general and two tertiary children’s hospitals. Intervention The PUMA programme is a paediatric early warning system improvement programme designed to harness local expertise to implement contextually appropriate interventions. Main outcome measures The primary outcome was a composite metric, representing children who experienced one of the following in 1 month: mortality, cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, unplanned admission to a paediatric intensive care unit or unplanned admission to a high-dependency unit. Paediatric early warning system changes were assessed through ethnographic ward case studies. Results The reviews showed limited effectiveness of paediatric track-and-trigger tools in isolation, and multiple failure points in paediatric early warning systems. All sites made paediatric early warning system changes; some of the clearer quantitative findings appeared to relate to qualitative observations. Systems changed in response to wider contextual factors. Limitations Low event rates made quantitative outcome measures challenging. Implementation was not a one-shot event, creating challenges for the interrupted time series in conceptualising ‘implementation’ and ‘post-intervention’ periods. Conclusions Detecting and acting on deterioration in the acute hospital setting requires a whole-systems approach. The PUMA programme offers a framework to support ongoing system-improvement work; the approach could be used more widely. Organisational-level system change can affect clinical outcomes positively. Alternative outcome measures are required for research and quality improvement. Future work The following further research is recommended: a consensus study to identify upstream indicators of paediatric early warning system performance; an evaluation of OUTCOME approach in other clinical areas; an evaluation of supernumerary nurse co-ordinator role; and an evaluation of mandated system improvement. Study registration This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42015015326. Funding This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Health and Social Care Delivery Research programme and will be published in full in Health and Social Care Delivery Research; Vol. 10, No. 1. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

The Creative Advance Must Be Defended: Miscegenation, Metaphysics, and Race War in Jan Smuts’s Vision of the League of Nations

This paper argues that the idea of global peace in early twentieth-century liberal international order was sutured together by the threat of race war. This understanding of racial peace was institutionalized in the League of Nations mandate system through its philosophical architect: Jan Smuts. I argue that the League figured in Smuts’s thought as the culmination of the creative advance of the universe: white internationalist unification and settler colonialism was the cosmological destiny of humanity that enabled a racial peace. In Smuts’s imaginary, the twin prospect of race war and miscegenation serves as the dark underside that both necessitates and threatens to undo this project. By reframing the problem of race war through his metaphysics, Smuts resolves the challenge posed by race war by institutionalizing indirect rule and segregation as a project of pacification that ensured that settlement and the creative advance of the cosmos could proceed.

Dissenting Voices: The Secretariat of the League of Nations and the Drafting of Mandates, 1919–1923

ABSTRACT This analysis explores the criticism about the creation of mandates in the League of Nations, particularly in the Secretariat; there, a number of officials questioned the organisation’s stance on this matter. Their critical views showed the crucial importance of the early debates in shaping the League’s nature and revealed the existence of a core group of eminent Secretariat members whose beliefs objected to the principles underlying the draft mandate provisions and the League’s tacit assent in their approval. These opinions highlighted administrative shortcomings in the League’s structure, particularly the Secretariat’s role and the ambiguous attitude of the secretary general, and foresaw the detrimental consequences that the mandates system would have for the League’s reputation. Some Secretariat members, who envisaged a more assertive role for the institution, vigorously challenged views on the League’s helplessness in the international post-war context that have come to predominate in current scholarship.

Electronic Prescribing Systems as Tools to Improve Patient Care: A Learning Health Systems Approach to Increase Guideline Concordant Prescribing for Venous Thromboembolism Prevention

Background: Venous thromboembolism (VTE) causes significant mortality and morbidity in hospitalised patients. In England, reporting the percentage of patients with a VTE risk assessment is mandated, but this does not include whether that risk assessment resulted in appropriate prescribing. Full guideline compliance (defined as an assessment and an appropriate action) is rarely reported. Education, audit and feedback enhance guideline compliance but electronic prescribing systems (EPS) can mandate guideline-compliant actions. We hypothesised that EPS-based interventions would increase full VTE guideline compliance more than other interventions. Methods: All admitted patients within University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust were included for analysis between 2011-2020. The proportion of patients who received a fully compliant risk assessment with the recommended action (prophylaxis or not, depending on the risk score) was assessed over time. Interventions included face-to-face feedback based on measured performance (an individual approach) and mandatory risk assessment and prescribing rules into an EPS (a systems approach). Findings: Data from all 235,005 admissions and all 5503 prescribers were included in the analysis. Face-to-face feedback gradually improved full VTE guideline concordance from 70% to 77% (p=<0.001). Changes to the EPS to mandate assessment with prescribing rules increased full VTE compliance to 95% (p=<0.001). Further amendments to the EPS system to reduce erroneous VTE assessments slightly reduced full compliance to 92% (p<0.001), but this was then maintained during two changes to the low molecular weight heparin drug used for VTE prophylaxis. Interpretation: While both feedback and a rules-based EPS intervention improved guideline-compliant VTE management, a systems approach was more effective and benefits were sustained even during changes to formulary drugs. Non-compliance (an assessment without appropriate action or no assessment) was not eradicated despite this mandated system. Further work is needed to understand this and to ensure software changes enhance full guideline compliance. Funding Statement: This work was supported by PIONEER, the Health Data Research Hub in acute care and the HDR-UK Better Care programme. Declaration of Interests: S Gallier, P Nightingale, T Pankhurst, I Woolhouse, MA Berry, M Garrick report no conflicts of interest. S Ball reports funding support from the HDRUK. E Sapey reports funding support from HDRUK, MRC, Wellcome Trust, NIHR, Alpha 1 Foundation, EPSRC and British Lung Foundation. All other authors have nothing to declare. Ethics Approval Statement: This research was conducted under the ethical approvals of PIONEER, a Health data research hub in acute care (East Midlands – Derby Research ethics committee, reference 20/EM/0158).

Colonialism, Imperialism, and the League of Nations

The history of colonialism, decolonization, and postcolonial development is a global cross-cutting trend in world history, spanning several centuries. The research interest in the legacy of the League of Nations in the field of internationalization of mandate territories has been intensifing in recent years. In the last third of the 21st century, the term "imperialism" began to be applied to the active European colonization and division of the world. The First World War brought significant changes to the processes of colonialism and imperialism. The League of Nations, the first international organization, was shaped. The mandate system was developed in the League of Nations as a compromise option for transferring the former German colonies and possessions of the Ottoman Empire. However, the mandate system of the League of Nations was more than a cover for the colonial division of territories. The principle of international trusteeship and the internationalization of management has appeared in the mandate system. Open imperialism became a thing of the past. In the interwar period, the mandate system marked the beginning of the crisis of colonial empires. The Permanent Mandates Commission (PMC) the League of Nations created a new network of political influence for change in the mandate territories. The mother countries was subject to these rules under the threat of being accused of non-compliance with international law and the terms of their respective mandates. The completely new practice of petitioning Geneva provided some political opportunities for residents and various groups in mandate territories to change the practices of mandate governments. The internationalization of economic and cultural life was also fruitful. Education and health services were developed in the mandate territories due to the practice of discussing these issues in the Permanent Mandates Commission . Despite the fact that at the time of decolonization, the result of the development of mandate territories was not very different from that of colonial countries, the League of Nations managed to change a lot in the world over a short period of time.

ПОЛИТИКА КОЛОНИАЛЬНЫХ ДЕРЖАВ В АФРИКЕ В ПЕРВОЙ ПОЛОВИНЕ ХХ В. (ПО МАТЕРИАЛАМ ЖУРНАЛА "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW")

It is generally accepted that the intractable conflicts that tormented the African States which were freed from colonialism were the result of decisions made in the process of decolonization in the early 1960 s. However, the modern historians believe that the roots of these conflicts are much deeper, and turn to the study of the results of the First World War and the mandate system of the League of Nations.

« Appartenances coloniales ». Les répercussions du traité de Versailles sur le statut juridique des Allemands noirs et de leurs familles entre les deux guerres

Under the Treaty of Versailles the German colonial empire was placed under the mandate system of the League of Nations. France, Britain and South Africa took over legal responsibility for the administration of Germany’s former African territories, whose populations were, in theory, placed under the ‘diplomatic protection’ of the same states. What this amounted to was unspecified, but as this article shows, the willingness of the mandate states to take responsibility for their new charges would be particularly tested in Germany itself. There, to the concern of the German colonial authorities, a small population of African colonial subjects, willingly or otherwise, had set up home and formed families. This article examines the legal and real-life consequences the shift from German colony to Mandate state had during the interwar period for these men, their white, European wives and their German-born children who remained in Germany. At the same time, it highlights public and private initiatives undertaken by German-based Black people to raise attention to their plight and to improve their legal status.

Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum: Kepedulian Dan Kerjasama Gerejawi Untuk Tanah Misi Dan Di Tanah Misi

The concern to the situation and condition to all other members of the Church and the collaboration for the welfare of the entire Church is the expression of communio (communion) which is the character of Christ Church. The arise of Church in the mission land and its development which like the mustard seed is the fruit of the concern and collaboration of the missionaries showed by the community and Church which have been founded along the history. Considering Church resources are always limited, every form of across continents concern and collaboration should be done effectively. In the process of the evangelization in the mission land, these concern and collaboration encounter various forms of initiatives; starting from the simple, spontaneous, sporadic and individual to the consistent, coordinated organizations. These concern and collaboration often find frictions, conflicts of interest, impartialities, and injustice; especially concerning the implementation of the power of jurisdiction in the mission land and the submission to the superiority of the mission leaders. The negative excesses are seen and observed objectively and corrected to attain the more effective concerns and collaboration for the sake of the development of the mission work. The apostolic see is the central organ has explored and successfully founded an effective and sustainable missionary collaboration system, from the commissio to the mandate system. Nowadays, the missionary concern and collaboration across particular churches have not been centralized, but assigned to each local communities and particular Churches, to develop mutual collaboration according to the mutual need and projects through the written agreement to mutual minister