Synthesis Of Poly Research Articles

Synthesis and Characterization of Poly(glycerol sebacate), Poly(glycerol succinate) and Poly(glycerol sebacate-co-succinate)

In recent years, thermoset elastomers, particularly polyesters derived from the polycondensation of glycerol and non-toxic diacids, have garnered significant interest. This study focuses on the synthesis of poly(glycerol-co-diacids) polymers using varying molar ratios of glycerol (G), sebacic acid (S), and succinic acid (Su). Seven distinct ratios were investigated (PGS (1:1), PGSSu (1:0.9:0.1), PGSSu (1:0.8:0.2), PGSSu (1:0.5:0.5), PGSSu (1:0.2:0.8), PGSSu (1:0.1:0.9) and PGSu (1:1)). The resulting polymers were analyzed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), dynamic mechanical analyses (DMA), tensile tests, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), gel fraction and degree of swelling determination. Among the synthesized polymers, PGS (1:1) and PGSu (1:1) exhibited superior mechanical robustness than the polymers obtained by mixing diacids. The results show that the incorporation of succinic acid in the synthesis of the polymers progressively led to rougher surfaces and a reduction in thermal resistance compared to PGS (1:1). PGSu (1:1) showed the highest surface roughness and the lowest thermal resistance. The glass transition temperature (Tg) for these elastomers ranged from − 30 °C to 30 °C. Additionally, higher ratios of succinic acid led to increased polymer density and less degree of swelling. The gel fraction of these polymers ranged from 70 to 95%. PGS (1:1) with the lowest and PGSu (1:1) with the highest gel fraction, respectively.Graphical

Vapor‐Phase Synthesis of Poly(para‐xylylene): From Coatings to Porous and Hierarchical Materials

AbstractPoly(para‐xylylene) (PPX) is a robust and biocompatible coating material that is widely used in various applications, including electronics, aerospace and defense materials, automotive materials, and biomaterials. In this progress report, recent developments in PPX technology ranging from the advancement of physical chemistry properties and structural properties for device integration to the transformation of 3D monolith materials of PPX with controls in outer and inner structures at the micro‐ and nanometer scales are highlighted. Based on emerging chemistry studies on [2.2]paracyclophanes, which are primarily used precursors to synthesize PPX via vapor deposition polymerization, functionalization, and the creation of a wide variety of functional PPX derivatives are demonstrated without resistance. Widely used as an interface coating material, PPX is processed to form integrated structural materials and has already been found to be useful in the market as part of electronic and medical implant products. Using a newly innovated transformation to fabricate PPX through templates (metal‐organic frameworks, liquid crystal, ice crystal), 3D monoliths, nanoscale particles, hierarchical and gradient interior structures, and dynamically transformable shapes at the nanoscale are demonstrated. A vast landscape of novel applications and device products is expected based on the already established R&D and market maturity of PPX.

Salt‐melt synthesis of poly(heptazine imide) in binary alkali metal bromides for enhanced visible‐light photocatalytic hydrogen production

AbstractPoly(heptazine imide) (PHI), a semicrystalline version of carbon nitride photocatalyst based on heptazine units, has gained significant attention for solar H2 production benefiting from its advantages including molecular synthetic versatility, excellent physicochemical stability and suitable energy band structure to capture visible photons. Typically, PHI is obtained in salt‐melt synthesis in the presence of alkali metal chlorides. Herein, we examined the role of binary alkali metal bromides (LiBr/NaBr) with diverse compositions and melting points to rationally modulate the polymerization process, structure, and properties of PHI. Solid characterizations revealed that semicrystalline PHI with a condensed π‐conjugated system and rapid charge separation rates were obtained in the presence of LiBr/NaBr. Accordingly, the apparent quantum yield of hydrogen using the optimized PHI reaches up to 62.3% at 420 nm. The density functional theory calculation shows that the dehydrogenation of the ethylene glycol has a lower energy barrier than the dehydrogenation of the other alcohols from the thermodynamic point of view. This study holds great promise for rational modulation of the structure and properties of conjugated polymeric materials.

Synthesis of poly(maleic anhydride-co-vinyl chloride) crosslinked microspheres and its superior enhancement in mechanical strength and antibacterial activity for poly(vinyl alcohol) composite films

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is an attractive raw material and widely applicated in multiple fields owing to its unique features. However, the poor mechanical strength and without intrinsic antimicrobial activity severely restrained its further use. Herein, we proposed a novel strategy to fabricate PVA-based composites film with excellent mechanical properties and superior antibacterial activity by employing functional polymeric microspheres as a hydrogen bonding cross-linker and bactericide loading platform. Firstly, we synthesized poly(maleic anhydride-co-vinyl chloride) cross-linked microspheres (PDVM) via self-stabilized precipitation polymerization and subsequently the PDVM microspheres were reacted with gaseous ammonia to endow the microsphere surface with abundant carboxyl and amidogen group. As a result, uniform PDVM microspheres with diameters ranging from 175 to 685 nm and controlled gel content (25.3–91.8%) were prepared successfully and aminolyzed PDVM microsphere (NPDVM) were obtained. By incorporating 5 wt% NPDVM in PVA matrix, the composite film has a significant increment in tensile strength (63.9 MPa) and elongation at break (107 %) in comparison to neat PVA (51.8 MPa, 80%) mainly attributed to the formation of multiple hydrogen bonding network. Furthermore, by immobilizing Zn2+ on the surface of NPDVM/PVA film via complexation, the composite film exhibited outstanding antibacterial efficiency against E. coli and S. aureus.

Synthesis of poly (3-hydroxy butyrate)-g-poly (ricinoleic acid)-Ag nanocomposite for adsorption of methyl blue with multivariate optimization

A novel material based on Poly (3-hydroxy butyrate)-Polyricinoleic acid-Ag nanocomposite (PHB-AgPrici) is prepared and used for removing methyl blue (MB) from water. Solid phase micro-extraction (SPME) in portable syringe systems was established in this work. Silver nanoparticles were induced from AgNO3 in ricinoleic acid under atmospheric autoxidation conditions at room temperature leading to peroxidized polyricinoleic acid (AgPrici). Methacrylate poly (3-hydroxy butyrate) (PHB-MA) was reacted with AgPrici to obtain PHB-poly ricinoleic acid containing silver nanoparticles (PHB-AgPrici). The obtained nanocomposite was characterized using 1H NMR, SEM-EDX, DSC, and FT-IR. Using studies of isotherms, kinetics, and thermodynamics, the adsorption mechanisms of MB over PHB-AgPrici were examined. About 169 mg/g maximum monolayer adsorption capacity was determined and the percentage efficiency was reached to 99.5 %. Moreover, the percentage recovery was recorded at 99.0 % for wastewater and 99.5 % in drinking water which reached 99.7 % in river water. The values of G° −3.709 KJ mol−1 and H° 4.4039 KJ mol−1 designate an endothermic adsorption process. The obtained results indicated that the prepared material is very promising to be used to remove pollutants from industrial wastewater.

Synthesis of Poly(GG-co-AAm-co-MAA), a Terpolymer Hydrogel for the Removal of Methyl Violet and Fuchsin Basic Dyes from Aqueous Solution.

A novel adsorbent designated as terpolymer hydrogel (gellan gum-co-acrylamide-co-methacrylic acid) was prepared by free radical polymerization of gellan gum (GG), methacrylic acid (MAA), and acrylamide (AAm) using N,N-methylene bis-acrylamide (MBA) as cross-linker and ammonium per sulfate (APS) as the initiator of the reaction. The synthesized gel was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and was used for the adsorptive removal of methyl violet (MV) and Fuchsin Basic (FB) dyes from aqueous solution. The effect of temperature, contact time, pH, and concentration on them under the study adsorption process was evaluated. Freundlich isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic models were found to be best in fitting the isothermal and kinetics data. The water diffusion and % swelling of hydrogel were studied at various pH in distilled water and at neutral pH in tap water. The diffusion was found to be of Fickian type with a maximum swelling of 5132%. The maximum adsorption capacity was 233 mg/g against MV and 200 mg/g against FB dyes. The swelling and adsorption were pH dependent and increased with increase in pH. The enthalpy, Gibbs free energy, and entropy changes of adsorption for both the dyes indicated the adsorption process to be exothermic, feasible, and spontaneous. The hydrogel was successfully regenerated using acetone and distilled water for five cycles and still, its dye removal efficiency was 80% of its original value. The poly(GG-co-AAm-co-MAA) hydrogel successfully removed the selected dyes from water and could thus be used as an efficient alternative sorbent for cationic dye removal from aqueous solutions.

Synthesis of poly(methylsilsesquioxane-co-dimethylsiloxane) liquids and deep-ultraviolet transparent elastic resins through co-solvent-free water-rich hydrolytic polycondensation of organoalkoxysilanes

A co-solvent-free hydrolytic polycondensation of mono- and dimethylmethoxysilanes at high H2O/Si ratios (≳10) gave methylsilsesquioxane-rich (80 mol%) liquids heat-curable to stiff, tough, and deep-UV transparent resins showing full elastic recovery.

Synthesis of poly(hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene-co-phenolphthalein) microspheres with negative charges for the selective removal of cationic dyes

Synthesis of poly(hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene-co-phenolphthalein) microspheres with negative charges for the selective removal of cationic dyes

Synthesis of Poly(δ-caprolactone) via Bis(phenolate) Rare-Earth Metal Complexes Mediated Ring-Opening Polymerization and Its Chemical Recycling.

New amine-amino-bis(phenolate) ligands (H2LtBu and H2LCl) with a cyclic tertiary amine (pyrrolidine) as a side arm and tBu or Cl group on the phenolate ring have been prepared. The alkane elimination reaction between these free ligands and rare-earth tris(alkyl)s Ln(CH2SiMe3)3(THF)2 afforded the corresponding silylalkyl complexes LtBuLnCH2SiMe3(THF) (Ln = Y (1), Lu (2)) and LClYCH2SiMe3(THF) (3), where the solid-state structure of complex 1 was unambiguously confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. These rare-earth metal complexes have been utilized as catalysts for the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of biobased δ-caprolactone (δCL), either in the absence or presence of alcohols, to give poly(δ-caprolactone) (PδCL) with controlled molecular weight and narrow distribution (Đ < 1.2). The polymerization kinetics of δCL in toluene with yttrium complexes 1 and 3 were investigated. Oligomers prepared with complex 3 alone and the 3/PhCHMeOH binary catalyst system were well characterized with 1H NMR spectroscopy and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy (MALDI-TOF MS). Moreover, chemical recycling of the resultant PδCL was achieved with high yield in a solution at ambient temperature (>92%) or in bulk at 130 °C (>82%) by using commercial KOtBu as a promotor.

Pulmonary siRNA Delivery with Sophisticated Amphiphilic Poly(Spermine Acrylamides) for the Treatment of Lung Fibrosis.

RNA interference (RNAi)is an efficient strategy to post-transcriptionally silence gene expression. While all siRNA drugs on the market target the liver, the lung offers a variety of currently undruggable targets, which can potentially be treated with RNA therapeutics. To achieve this goal, the synthesis of poly(spermine acrylamides) (P(SpAA) is reported herein. Polymers are prepared via polymerization of N-acryloxysuccinimide (NAS) and afterward this active ester is converted into spermine-based pendant groups. Copolymerizations with decylacrylamide are employed to increase the hydrophobicity of the polymers. After deprotection, polymers show excellent siRNA encapsulation to obtain perfectly sized polyplexes at very low polymer/RNA ratios. In vitro 2D and 3D cell culture, ex vivo and in vivo experiments reveal superior properties of amphiphilic spermine-copolymers with respect to delivery of siRNA to lung cells in comparison to commonly used lipid-based transfection agents. In line with the in vitro results, siRNA delivery to human lung explants confirm more efficient gene silencing of protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2), a G protein-coupled receptor involved in fibrosis. This study reveals the importance of the balance between efficient polyplex formation, cellular uptake, gene knockdown, and toxicity for efficient siRNA delivery in vitro, in vivo, and in fibrotic human lung tissue ex vivo.

Synthesis of Poly(methylmethacrylate-cobutylacrylate) Nanocompounds and Silver Nanoparticles Using Sustainable Method

Nanocomposites of poly(methylmethacrylate-cobutylacrylate) P(MMA-co-BuA) and silver nanoparticles (NPsAg) synthesized with extracts of O. ficus-indica (OFI) and A. vera (AV) were obtained by using microwaves. The nanocomposites were synthesized by “in situ” emulsion polymerization, where different concentrations of NPsAg (0.05, 0.1, 0.5 and 1%) with respect to the polymer were studied. Films were formed from the latex, which were characterized by different techniques. Using UV-Vis, the characteristic absorbance of the surface plasmon resonance of the NPsAg in the nanocomposite was observed in the range of 415-436 nm. The thermal stability of the nanocomposites was carried out using TGA, where it was observed that the higher the concentration of NPsAg, the lower thethermal stability. The DSC results showed that the glass transition temperatures (Tg) for the nanocomposites with nanoparticles are between 8 and 12ºC. The percentage elongation of the nanocomposites was 400%, in addition, the Young’s modulus and the tensile strength of the same were determined, observing that the higher the content of NPsAg, the lower the elastic behavior and the mechanical resistance of the nanocomposites. Using SEM, it was confirmed that the NPsAg maintain a spherical morphology. Finally, using FTIR, the possible interaction between the PMMA-Co-BuA copolymer and the NPsAg was determined.

Synthesis of Poly(propylene oxide)-Poly(N,N'-dimethylacrylamide) Diblock Copolymer Nanoparticles via Reverse Sequence Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly in Aqueous Solution.

Sterically-stabilized diblock copolymer nanoparticles comprising poly(propylene oxide) (PPO) cores are prepared via reverse sequence polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) in aqueous solution. N,N'-Dimethylacrylamide (DMAC) acts as a cosolvent for the weakly hydrophobic trithiocarbonate-capped PPO precursor. Reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization of DMAC is initially conducted at 80% w/w solids with deoxygenated water. At 30-60% DMAC conversion, the reaction mixture is diluted to 5-25% w/w solids. The PPO chains become less solvated as the DMAC monomer is consumed, which drives in situ self-assembly to form aqueous dispersions of PPO-core nanoparticles of 120-190 nm diameter at 20 °C. Such RAFT polymerizations are well-controlled (Mw/Mn ≤ 1.31), and more than 99% DMAC conversion is achieved. The resulting nanoparticles exhibit thermoresponsive character: dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy studies indicate the formation of more compact spherical nanoparticles of approximately 33 nm diameter on heating to 70 °C. Furthermore, 15-25% w/w aqueous dispersions of such nanoparticles formed micellar gels that undergo thermoreversible (de)gelation on cooling to 5 °C.

Polymerization of renewable itaconic acid in deep eutectic monomers: Effect of the quaternary ammonium cation structure

A systematic investigation has been carried out on the synthesis of poly(itaconic acid) (PIA) in Deep Eutectic Monomer (DEM) systems, composed of bio-derived itaconic acid (IA) and quaternary ammonium chlorides (QCl) varying in their cation structure. The physicochemical properties including density, viscosity, Kamlet-Taft parameters and polarity as Nile Red transition energy of DEMs supported with spectroscopic studies (FT-IR, 1H and 13C NMR) are reported. It was observed that cation structure of the ammonium chloride impacts on the physicochemical properties and radical polymerization of DEMs. More notably, the correlations between the Kamlet-Taft hydrogen bonding accepting ability (β) of the DEMs and both IA polymerization rate and the molecular weight of the synthesized PIA were found. These findings provided theoretical guidance on designing DEMs tailored to specific polymerization process.

Synthesis of poly(Oak bark) particles from oak bark extract and its utilization as a drug carrier material

AbstractAs oak bark extract includes pharmaceutically meaningful precious biochemicals such as vanillic acid, quercetin, catechin, caffeic acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, chlorogenic acid, q‐coumaric and protocatechuic acid, the present study focuses on synthesizing polymeric particles from that extract while keeping their targeted natural bioactivity. In this study, due to the bioavailability of oak bark extracts, poly(Oak bark)water extract (p(OB)w), poly(Oak bark)ethanol extract (p(OB)e) and poly(Oak bark)water‐ethanol extract (p(OB)we) particles were synthesized using redox polymerization method. Additionally, the biocompatibility, hydrogen peroxide scavenging (H2O2), antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of these substances were investigated. The characterization of the synthesized particles was conducted by FTIR and SEM methods. It was determined that even low amounts of particles (1 mg) had high antioxidant and H2O2 activity. It was found that the particles (0.1 mg/mL) showed antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans within the parameters tested for antimicrobial activity. Paracetamol, which is widely used as a model drug and especially recommended for use in the Covid‐19 outbreak, was chosen to test the release potential of the p(OB)w, p(OB)e and p(OB)w‐e particles. Paracetamol release studies were measured with a UV‐VIS spectrophotometer at pH 7.4 and 37°C.

Adsorption of Diclofenac from Aqueous Solution by Amine-Functionalized Poly (Acrylonitrile-Co-Acrylic Acid) Microparticles Adsorbent

In this study, the synthesis of poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN) and poly(acrylonitrile-co-acrylic acid) (poly(ACN-co-AAc)) was carried out via redox polymerization, using sodium bisulphate (SBS) and potassium persulphate (KPS) as initiators. Subsequently, the resulting poly(ACN-co-AAc) was functionalized with ethanolamine (ETA) and ethylenediamine (EDA) to utilize as adsorbents for the removal of diclofenac from an aqueous solution. Both unfunctionalized and functionalized poly(ACN-co-AAc) were characterized using Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis. The effects of pH, initial concentration of diclofenac solution, contact time, and adsorbent dosage were investigated during the adsorption process. The isotherm data were best fitted by the Langmuir model, indicating a mono-layered adsorption mechanism. The maximum adsorption capacities obtained from the Langmuir equation were higher for ETA-functionalized poly(ACN-co-AAc) at 120.5 mg/g, as compared to EDA-functionalized poly(ACN-co-AAc) at 80.6 mg/g. The experimental kinetic results showed that the pseudo-second-order model was a good fit for describing the adsorption rate of diclofenac for both ETA-functionalized poly(ACN-co-AAc) and EDA-functionalized poly(ACN-co-AAc), with R2 values of 0.9930 and 0.9906, respectively. This suggests that the chemisorption process is more favourable for the adsorption of diclofenac when using both types of adsorbents.

Synthesis of Poly(ethylene furanoate) Based Nanocomposites by In Situ Polymerization with Enhanced Antibacterial Properties for Food Packaging Applications.

Poly(ethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate) (PEF)-based nanocomposites containing Ce-bioglass, ZnO, and ZrO2 nanoparticles were synthesized via in situ polymerization, targeting food packaging applications. The nanocomposites were thoroughly characterized, combining a range of techniques. The successful polymerization was confirmed using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, and the molecular weight values were determined indirectly by applying intrinsic viscosity measurements. The nanocomposites' structure was investigated by depth profiling using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), while color measurements showed a low-to-moderate increase in the color concentration of all the nanocomposites compared to neat PEF. The thermal properties and crystallinity behavior of the synthesized materials were also examined. The neat PEF and PEF-based nanocomposites show a crystalline fraction of 0-5%, and annealed samples of both PEF and PEF-based nanocomposites exhibit a crystallinity above 20%. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs revealed that active agent nanoparticles are well dispersed in the PEF matrix. Contact angle measurements showed that incorporating nanoparticles into the PEF matrix significantly reduces the wetting angle due to increased roughness and introduction of the polar -OH groups. Antimicrobial studies indicated a significant increase in inhibition of bacterial strains of about 9-22% for Gram-positive bacterial strains and 5-16% for Gram-negative bacterial strains in PEF nanocomposite films, respectively. Finally, nanoindentation tests showed that the ZnO-based nanocomposite exhibits improved hardness and elastic modulus values compared to neat PEF.

Synthesis of poly(D,L-lactide) with controlled molecular weight and type of end-groups

The synthesis of poly(D,L-lactide) with a predetermined molecular weight ranging from 5 to 143 kDa was conducted by ringopening polymerization of lactide in the presence of varying concentrations of the 1,12-dodecanediol activator. To synthesize poly(D,L-lactide) with COOH-end groups, polymerization was carried out in the presence of L-lactic acid. The synthesised polymer was found to contain an order of magnitude higher concentration of COOH groups than poly(D,L-lactide) synthesised in the presence of 1,12-dodecanediol.

Synthesis of Poly (3‑bromo thiophene) supported cobalt molybdate bifunctional catalyst: Manifestation of overall water splitting and hydrazine assisted water splitting

The article reports a one-step hydrothermal synthesis of hydrated cobalt molybdate, grown in-situ on the conducting polymer poly (3-bromothiophene) (PTBr) surface, which can act as a superior bifunctional electrocatalyst to exploit O2 evolution reaction (OER), Hydrazine oxidation reaction (HzOR) and H2 evolution reaction (HER) as compared to pristine cobalt molybdate (CoMoO4.xH2O) and PTBr. The material architecture was evaluated critically using PXRD, TGA, FTIR, HRTEM, XPS and BET surface area measurement to understand the structural and compositional status of the catalyst. The performance of the CoMoO4@30% PTBr composite catalyst appears to be significantly high demanding low overpotentials of 308 mV in case of OER and 198 mV regarding HER compared to polymer unsupported catalyst for affording 10 mA cm−2 current density. The upliftment of catalytic action of composite is an outcome of synergistic effect between CoMoO4 and optimal concentration of PTBr which assists to achieve large electrochemically active surface area (ECSA) (89.50 m2 g−1) and thereby faster charge transport efficiency compared to its pristine counterpart. In summary, the introduction of polymer with CoMoO4 categorically reduces the cell potential for overall water splitting by 0.108 V (vs RHE) in presence and 0.178 V in absence of hydrazine proving composite as a beneficial energy-saving electrocatalyst.

Synthesis of Poly(butylene adipate terephthalate)-co-poly(glycolic acid) with Enhanced Degradability in Water

Synthesis of Poly(butylene adipate terephthalate)-<i>co</i>-poly(glycolic acid) with Enhanced Degradability in Water

Radiation preparation and antimicrobial activity of Poly(PVA/starch/Ag NPs) nanocomposite towards Penicillium digitatum on citrus fruits

The synthesis of Poly(PVA/St/Ag NPs) nanocomposite by using of gamma radiation was carried out. The progress of the reaction was examined by using different techniques such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), UV, XRD, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The FTIR show the successful preparation of the Poly(PVA/St/Ag NPs) nanocomposite by gamma radiation at a dose of 5 kGy. The TEM analysis displays the particle size distribution of Ag NPs and it is observed that the Ag NPs size was in the range of 21-30 nm. The SEM images show a good distribution of silver nanoparticles in the Poly(PVA/St/Ag NPs) nanocomposite. matrix, but with little agglomerations or aggregates observed on the surface of the Poly(PVA/St/Ag NPs) nanocomposite. The XRD analysis indicates that amorphous regions are enhanced in the Poly(PVA/St/Ag NPs) nanocomposite. The coating of Citrus fruits by of Poly(PVA/St/Ag NPs) nanocomposite showed better performance in inhibition of the growth of P. digitatum on citrus fruits than free Ag NPs at concentration of 30 ppm. The incorporation of Ag NPs in Poly(PVA/St/Ag NPs) nanocomposite has extremely obvious antifungal activities against P. digitatum due to the nanometer range of Ag NPs that can interact with P. digitatum surface and/or its core where it enters inside the cell, as a result, cellular metabolism is inhibited causing death of P. digitatum and subsequently exhibits antifungal activities.