Syntactic Units Research Articles

Zarf-fiil eklerinin cümle sıralama işlevi ve bunun söz dizimindeki yeri üzerine

A sentence, main element of which is predicate, is a word or a set of words that conveys a statement, question, exclamation, or command. The predicate can be a conjugated verb or a noun used with a copulative verb. The meaning of the predicate is supported by the other elements in the sentence. The number of words or phrases may change in terms of need. Texts are made by putting these syntactic units successively. While making texts, sentences are either stopped by punctuation marks that express ending or they are connected to each other by several morphemes or punctuation marks depending on the relations between them. In syntax studies, conjunctions are the most common units that are given to connect sentences. However, the gerund suffixes -(y)Ip, -(y)ArAK and –ken have the function of connecting sentences as well as making gerunds. This function of these suffixes are not, or partially, mentioned in the syntactic research. In the sentence “Otel icin rezervasyon yaptirirken bazi konulara dikkat etmeliyiz.”, the clause “Otel icin rezervasyon yaptirirken” is the adverb of the predicate “dikkat etmeliyiz”. On the other hand, in the sentence “Kiz cocuklari surekli diyet yaparken erkek cocuklari her istedigini yiyor.” , the clause “Kiz cocuklari surekli diyet yaparken” is not the adverb of the predicate “yiyor”. This is, indeed, the compound form of two sentences with –ken “ Kiz cocuklari surekli diyet yapiyor ama erkek cocuklari her istedigini yiyor.” The adverbial suffixes-(y)Ip, -(y)ArAK can also be used as sentence connectors. The aim of this article is to draw attention to these functions of the suffixes in question and to that their functions should be evaluated in terms of syntax.

A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF AN ESSAY: EMPLOYING RUTH WODAK’S MODEL

Critical Discourse Analysis demystifies power mechanisms operating in different kinds of discourse. It sets forth hidden discourses and meanings for common people. Besides, the current research assignment has studied Bernard Lewis’ essay: The Roots of Muslim Rage using Ruth Wodak’s Discourse Historical Model (2004). Moreover, the researchers have employed purposive sampling as a research design to collect the data. The research is qualitative as it answers the research questions using Wodak’s model. The purpose of this research was to expose hermeneutic interpretations of orientalist discourse that reflect implausible thinking about Muslims. However, much work has been done on discourse of orientalism, yet from Wodak’s point of view much work is to be done; hence, the current research paper has also contributed to the field of critical discourse analysis. The subjectification of the Muslims through oriental norms is the main theme in Lewis’ essay as revealed by analysing lexical and syntactic units. Thus, the current research has concluded the findings in accordance with the research questions and research objectives.

Semi-supervised Thai Sentence Segmentation Using Local and Distant Word Representations

A sentence is typically treated as the minimal syntactic unit used for extracting valuable information from a longer piece of text. However, in written Thai, there are no explicit sentence markers. We proposed a deep learning model for the task of sentence segmentation that includes three main contributions. First, we integrate n-gram embedding as a local representation to capture word groups near sentence boundaries. Second, to focus on the keywords of dependent clauses, we combine the model with a distant representation obtained from self-attention modules. Finally, due to the scarcity of labeled data, for which annotation is difficult and time-consuming, we also investigate and adapt Cross-View Training (CVT) as a semi-supervised learning technique, allowing us to utilize unlabeled data to improve the model representations. In the Thai sentence segmentation experiments, our model reduced the relative error by 7.4% and 10.5% compared with the baseline models on the Orchid and UGWC datasets, respectively. We also applied our model to the task of pronunciation recovery on the IWSLT English dataset. Our model outperformed the prior sequence tagging models, achieving a relative error reduction of 2.5%. Ablation studies revealed that utilizing n-gram presentations was the main contributing factor for Thai, while the semi-supervised training helped the most for English.

<i>Uno</i>

Generic masculines – masculine forms used for women – are employed in many languages, for example English (Mills 2008), French (Coady 2018), Spanish (Bengoechea 2011) and German (Motschenbacher 2016), providing accounts of how gender is made visible in the language through morphological, lexical and syntactic units. These accounts are also linked with how gender is seen in societies and culture, reproducing an imbalance between women and men. Specifically, language discrimination against women is based on the idea that speakers orient themselves towards androcentric language, recognising ‘men’ as a metonym for the group ‘human being’ (Alvanoudi 2014), causing a linguistic invisibility of women.
 
 Similarly, studies in Italian have also discussed the use of masculine forms to refer to, talk about and describe women (Cavagnoli 2013), or have shown how these are used in specialised (Nardone 2016, 2018) or media corpora (Formato 2014, 2016, 2019). This article investigates the use of a specific (and underexamined) generic masculine in Italian – namely, the indefinite pronoun uno.m.sg (in comparison with una.f.sg) labelled ‘impersonal masculine’ (Formato 2019:69) – in three subcorpora of the Perugia Corpus (TV, Web and Spoken; Spina 2014). Uno.m.sg is seen as constructing ‘extended intersubjectivity’, that is, the awareness of a general third party (3rdP) acting as the social bearer of the utterance (Tantucci 2013, 2016, 2017a). The results show that the masculine impersonal uno.m.sg is widely used in the three subcorpora and in several functions, confirming that grammatically gendered language is still employed within a ‘masculine as a norm’ order.

Ordem das palavras nas sentenças Libras no corpus da Grande Florianópolis

O objetivo de pesquisa é analisar a estrutura das sentenças na Libras, com foco na ordem das palavras em estruturas com argumentos produzidos no Corpus de Libras com surdos da Grande Florianópolis. O estudo analisou interações em Libras, anotadas por meio do Sistema Eudico Annotator (ELAN). A análise dos dados foi feita a partir dessas unidades sintáticas com anotações específicas dos componentes de cada sentença. Para esta pesquisa, o foco foi nas sentenças com os argumentos pronunciados abertamente identificando-se os argumentos e suas posições sintáticas. Esta pesquisa verificou que a ordem básica das palavras na Libras em sentenças menos marcadas com argumentos pronunciados é SVO, confirmando estudos previamente publicados com base em dados elicitados (por exemplo, Quadros (1999) e Ferreira-Brito (1995)).

What Limits Our Capacity to Process Nested Long-Range Dependencies in Sentence Comprehension?

Sentence comprehension requires inferring, from a sequence of words, the structure of syntactic relationships that bind these words into a semantic representation. Our limited ability to build some specific syntactic structures, such as nested center-embedded clauses (e.g., “The dog that the cat that the mouse bit chased ran away”), suggests a striking capacity limitation of sentence processing, and thus offers a window to understand how the human brain processes sentences. Here, we review the main hypotheses proposed in psycholinguistics to explain such capacity limitation. We then introduce an alternative approach, derived from our recent work on artificial neural networks optimized for language modeling, and predict that capacity limitation derives from the emergence of sparse and feature-specific syntactic units. Unlike psycholinguistic theories, our neural network-based framework provides precise capacity-limit predictions without making any a priori assumptions about the form of the grammar or parser. Finally, we discuss how our framework may clarify the mechanistic underpinning of language processing and its limitations in the human brain.

IDENTIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SUBJECT AS A THEME: FOCUSING ON ENGLISH DECLARATIVE CLAUSES

This research discusses one of the types of subjects functioning as a theme proposed by Halliday (1985) in the English Declarative Clause which is called the Psychological Subject. Halliday claims the interpretation of Psychological subject into as something which is the concern of the message. It is the first constituent which becomes a ‘subject-matter’ of the clause. The data are taken from two kinds of books. The first one is an autobiography book and the second one is a medical book. The aim of this research is to identify the kinds of the theme found in psychological subjects in the English Declarative Clause and also categories found in psychological subjects functioning as a theme. The method used is a descriptive method and the technique employed is paraphrasing. The descriptive method was used to depict the empirical data discovered in those sources. Meanwhile, the paraphrasing technique was employed in order to explore the characteristics of psychological subject functioning as a theme, types of theme and categories of syntactic units. The study shows that Psychological Subject (PS) functioning as a theme can be filled by words and groups which could be realized by nominal groups (nouns and pronouns), nominal group complexes, adverbial groups or prepositional phrases. Nominal groups (nouns and pronouns) and nominal group complexes can be identified as unmarked themes which are ordinary, expected, and usual form according to Deterding (2001), Gerot and Wignel (1994) identified as the subject of the sentence. Meanwhile, adverbial groups and prepositional phrases could be identified as marked themes because they become the first constituents which perform the point of the departure of the message in the clause.

Time sensitivity-based popularity prediction for online promotion on Twitter

Currently, companies and individuals tend to use social media to publish information for promoting products and options. Although an increasing body of research has focused on promotional skills on social media, the role of post-publication time is rarely studied. However, publication time of a post plays an important role in its popularity. To select suitable publication times, an effective approach is to predict popularity values of a post when it is published at a series of future time points. However, this task is not trivial because, (i) except for publication time, all the features are inefficient, as they are the same, and (ii) the new model needs to output multiple popularity values for each input post. To address these challenges, we introduce a latent factor model to build a time sensitivity-based predictive model that can predict posts’ popularity values when they are published at various times. In this model, to alleviate data sparsity, we decompose posts into syntactic units that are derived from dependency parsing results. To take advantage of auxiliary information, we exploit the features of temporal information and neighborhood influence. Experiments with Twitter data demonstrate that the proposed model significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods.

통사 단위 ‘절’에 대한 일고찰

본고는 절의 형식과 절의 외연 확장을 논의하고 새로운 절 체계를 제시하였다.<BR> 먼저, 기존의 절 체계에서 가장 문제가 되는 모절의 형식을 논의하였다. 모절의 형식을 확정하기 위해서는 절의 형식적 조건과 모절의 조사 문제를 해결해야 한다. 이를 고려하면 명사절, 서술절, 인용절을 안고 있는 모절은 이들을 포함하는 형식이며, 관형사절과 부사절을 안고 있는 모절은 이들을 제외한 형식으로 규정해야 한다.<BR> 다른 문법 단위들과의 관련성을 통해서 절의 특성과 외연을 구명하였다. 문법기술에서 절은 구로도 분석되는데, 이는 형식과 기능 중에서 무엇을 중시하느냐에 따른 것으로 이를 구분한다면 절과 구의 사용에 큰 문제는 없다. 절은 문장과의 관련성을 통해서 그 지위를 명확하게 파악할 수 있다. 절은 종결어미를 지니고 하나의 문장과 동일한 형식일 수 있지만 문장 개념을 폐기할 필요는 없다.<BR> 소형문은 하나의 절을 이룰 수 있으며, 소형문과 완형문이 연결된 문장은 접속문으로 볼 수 있다. 따라서 이러한 내용을 반영한다면 새로운 절 체계를 설정할 수 있다.

Граматичні особливості ідеостилю Лесі Українки: функції локатива у драмі-феєрії «Лісова пісня»

The article deals with the analysis of the grammatical features of Lesya Ukrainka’s individual style. In the focus is the identification of the locative functions in the fairy-drama “The Forest Song”. Locative is defined as a component of the semantic-syntactic structure of a sentence, dependent on a verbal predicate that expresses varieties of spatial meaning. The article argues the notion of syntactic dependency applicability in the analysis of a sentence structure. The study has revealed that the predicates expressing the locative dependency have the correlated semantics in sentence constructions. In the semantic-syntactic structure of sentence constructions, predicates of static semantics, predicates of process, and predicates of action determine the locative’s components. The author lays emphasis on the semantic meanings of the locative's components. They are dependent on the predicates of static semantics, predicates of process, and predicates of action. In the sentence structures of the fairy-drama The Forest Song, most locatives' components express static location, the starting point of movement, a path of movement, and the destination point. The semantic special features of syntactic units represent Lesya Ukrainka’s holistic worldview, indicate her individual style. The locative reflects the world around represented in spatial nominations. The explicit locative component has been recorded in the sentence constructions with predicates of static semantics as well as there are elliptical sentences with the implicit predicate of static semantics. The predicates of process and action predetermine explicit and implicit locative components. It was found that the locative is mainly represented by prepositional case forms. It turns out that the distinctive feature of all sentences with locative components is presence of prepositions as markers of locative dependency. The locative components are presented in two-member and one-member sentences, in elliptical and imperative sentence constructions.

SELF-EXPLANATORY SYNTACTIC CONSTRUCTIONS: STATUS, SEMANTICS, FUNCTIONS

The article is devoted to determining the status of self-explanatory syntactic constructions in the modern linguistics. Self-explanatory constructions are syntactic units, where both explanatory and explainable components express differently the same phenomenon, concept, feature, action, etc. The purpose of this article is the analysis of structural and functional features of self-explanatory constructs in Ukrainian linguistics.The research proved that the means of formation of self-explanatory units depend on the nature of explanatory relationships. It has been found that re-designation has different purposes: specification, listing of individual cases, giving an example, clarification, interpretation, indication of the possibility of a dual name, etc. The structural and semantic diversity of self-explanatory constructs and the frequency of their use in the texts of functional styles of modern Ukrainian literary language were revealed. The basic functions inherent in self-explanatory constructions were considered: self-explanatory, which combines explanatory, contextual-refinement, information and translation functions; interpretative and corrective ones.Therefore, the analyzed syntactic constructs may take a position of any member of the sentence – both main and secondary ones. The means of formation of self-explanatory units depend on the nature of explanatory relationships. In the composition of the statement the repeated meaning finds expression, first of all, in the selection of service words-indicators of actual-explanatory ties and type of intonation, as well as in the lexical composition of the explanatory. In the modern Ukrainian language the analyzed constructions are mostly used in scientific, journalistic and official business styles, where they realize their own explanatory, interpretative and corrective functions.

METASYMBOLISIERUNG UND FUNKTIONALASPEKT VON SYNTAKTISCH-STILLISTISCHEN MITTELN IM DEUTSCHEN POSTMODERNEN TEXT

The article reviews the scientific literature and traces the main trends in the development of postmodern text and the development of expressive syntax as a stylistic construction during the XX – XXI centuries. Particular attention is paid to the work of domestic and foreign linguists. The main focus is on the study of metasymbolization of metaphorization and metonymization processes with their basic techniques and means that create the emotionally expressive background of prose text. The basic and auxiliary functions of syntactic-stylistic markers in the novels of German postmodernists are examined in details. The syntax of the German language written postmodern prose text is expressive of the processes of metaphorization and metonymization, implicit means known as the “metasymbolization” of syntactic and stylistic units. The process of metaphorization of expressive means of German language postmodern prose is due to allegory, symbolism, and synesthesia. The most typical type of metaphorization was personification. Metonymization in the texture of writing prose text is considered based on spatial and temporal, material and causal, associative and logical and quantitative relationships. Metonymy is syntactic in nature, compared to the semantic nature of metaphor. Functional approach to the study of syntactic-stylistic markers of German expressive syntax in postmodern texts is based on functionalism as a methodology and guided by its basic research principles, since it is in the functions of the syntactic-stylistic markers that the true intentions and reinforce of the postmodern author are strengthened. We see the perspective of our research in a comprehensive comparison of the German-speaking postmodern text of German, Austrian and Swiss postmodernists.

Detecting malicious JavaScript code based on semantic analysis

Web development technology has undergone tremendous evolution, the creation of JavaScript has greatly enriched the interactive capabilities of the client. However, attackers use the dynamics feature of JavaScript language to embed malicious code into web pages for the purpose of drive-by-download, redirection, etc. The traditional method based on static feature detection is difficult to detect the malicious code after obfuscation, and the method based on dynamic analysis has low efficiency. To overcome these challenges, this paper proposes a static detection model based on semantic analysis. The model firstly generates an abstract syntax tree from JavaScript source codes, then automatically converts them to syntactic unit sequences. FastText algorithm is introduced to training word vectors. The syntactic unit sequences are represented as word vectors which will be input into Bi-LSTM network with attention mechanism. The detection model with Bi-LSTM network with attention mechanism is the key to detect malicious JavaScript. We experimented with the dataset using a five-fold cross-validation method. Experiments showed that the model can effectively detect obfuscated malicious JavaScript code and improve the detection speed, with a precision of 0.977 and recall of 0.974.

Morphemes and consonant vowels types in English

Morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit that has meaning. Traditional grammar does not recognize morpheme concepts or terms because morphemes are not syntactic units, and not all morphemes have philosophical meanings. The concept of morphemes was only introduced by structuralists at the beginning of the twentieth century. To determine whether a unit of form is morpheme or not, we must compare the form in its presence with other forms. If this form turns out to be repeated in other forms, then that form is a morpheme. In morphological studies, a formed unit that has the status of a morpheme is usually denoted by sandwiching it between curly brackets. For example, the word book is denoted as {book}, the word rewrite is denoted to be {re} + {write}. In every language there is a shape (like a word) that you can cut into smaller pieces, then cut back into smaller pieces that you cannot cut anymore.

КВАНТИТАТИВНІ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ ПОРЯДКУ СЛІВ У СУЧАСНІЙ УКРАЇНСЬКІЙ РОЗМОВНІЙ МОВІ (на матеріалі односкладних дієслівних речень)

Мета статті – установити поширеність порядку слів різних типів у сучасній українській розмовній мові. Джерела дослідження – тексти п’єс сучасних українських авторів і тексти приватного листування. Отримані дані свідчать про те, що загалом переважають односкладні речення й приєднувальні конструкції зі структурою Р та РО. Усі синтаксичні одиниці поділено на дві групи залежно від засобу вираження в них головного члена. Виявлено, що кількісну перевагу мають речення й приєднувальні конструкції, головний член яких виражений дієвідмінюваним або безособовим дієсловом. Особливу увагу зосереджено на змінах порядку слів залежно від жанрових різновидів розмовного стилю. З’ясовано, що в текстах різних жанрів трапляється різний порядок слів. Ключові слова: розмовний стиль, порядок слів, односкладні дієслівні речення, парцеляти, приєднувальні конструкції.

Коммуникемы с семантикой побуждения в коми языке

Introduction: the article analyzes the communicemas with semantics of motivation in the Komi language. The subject of the research is the intentions of communicants and implicit meanings conveyed by these syntactic units. Objective: to identify and describe the most common communicemas with the semantics of motivation in the Komi language, their pragmatic features and the specifics of functioning in speech. Research materials: the communicemas obtained by the method of continuous sampling from the works of Komi fiction. Results and novelty of the research: for the first time the article comprehensively analyzes the communicemas with the function of motivation in the Komi language, their semantic and pragmatic features are described. The communicemas with the semantics of motivation serve as the signals of intentions of an addressee and implicitly express his wills. With their help, a communicant achieves the desired action from an addressee, assuming a directive role. In addition to direct expression of will, these constructions most often contain the expressive and emotionally-evaluative component that is easily read by an interlocutor.The communicemas with the semantics of motivation are expressive means of language and are actively used in colloquial dialogic speech; they are distinguished by laconic form and capacity. The article presents the classification of these language units, and identifies the models for construction of the most commonly used communicemas with studied semantics. The results of the work can be used in courses on the syntax of the Komi language.

СОЧЕТАНИЕ ОДНОРОДНЫХ ГЛАГОЛЬНЫХ СКАЗУЕМЫХ: ПРОСТОЕ ИЛИ СЛОЖНОЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЕ?

The article is concerned with the problem of correlation of the homogeneity and the co-ordination in French that is essential to differentiate a simple sentence with the similar verb predicates of a complex sentence. The urgency of such problems is based on the similarity of these syntactic constructions due to the co-ordination link existing in both constructions. This fact doesn’t allow the grammarians to arrive at a common view on the nature of the two constructions. The author proves the influence of the verb predicate syntactic links with the other parts of the sentence on classifying the structure as a simple or a complex sentence. In the paper there have been studied the similar verb predicates in the extended and unextended sentences. In the extended sentences the author focuses on the form and place of a complement, on the presence or absence of the adverbial modifier. The verb predicate grammar form itself influences the differentiating the two structures. Thus, it has been concluded that the main distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the grammatical marker. There have been detected the supplementary distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the semantic aspect, the lexical meaning in particular. The treated analysis of the empiric material shows the dependence of determining the two syntactic units on the stylistic norms and the rhetorical mode. The most important finding of the research is that, contrary some scientists’ opinion, there is no reason to abandon the term of the similar verb predicates in French.

AGAT-Syntax as component of computer-based Ukrainian grammar

Abstract: The article describes functional features of the syntactic module of computer-based Ukrainian grammar AGAT. This is a linguistic type of computer-aided syntactic analysis, which provides full information about syntactic units and categories, in particular, predicativity, coordinate and subordinate clauses, the categories of subject and predicate etc. The developed linguistic software provides syntactic analysis of a whole sentence in the form of a dependency tree and indicates the types of syntactic relations and links. The AGAT-syntax task is to identify all varieties of compatibility – predicative, subordinate, and coordinate – of each word in the text. The grammatical characteristics of the phrase directly depend on which part of the language its keyword belongs to. The lexical and grammatical nature of the word determines its compatibility to the other words. Accordingly, phrases can be divided into substantive, adjective, pronouns, numeral, verbal and adverbial. Computer sub-grammars of valencies of the said parts of the language are built by us on a single principle: a lexema is indicated, preposition that participates in government and a case of a substantive word form in the shape of a two-letter code. In theory, according to their composition words combinations (phrases) are divided into simple, complex and combined. Dependency tree is built from two elements – nodes and connections. Nodes are wordforms and connections are relationships between the main element (“master”) and dependent element (“slave”). It enables to describe a configuration, a form, external parameters of a sentence but this is not sufficient to describe a sentence structure. Thus, the syntactic analysis has two levels: the first one attributes to each binary pair a type of syntactic relationships on the level of morphological way of expression of a “master”; the second level attributes to the connection a type of syntactic relationships, which include: subjective, objective, attributive, adverbial, completive and appositive modifying.. In such a way, the cycle of automated syntactic analysis of Ukrainian texts is completed by determining the syntactic word-combination, identifying a type of syntactic link and a type of relationship. It provides full range of characteristics that can be used for systemic study of semantic and syntactic problems. Keywords: automated syntactic analysis, dependency tree, syntactic relations, syntactic links.

Роль установки в синтаксисе художественной речи (на материале сатирической пьесы-миниатюры В. Ардова «Вот что наделали справки твои …»)

The question of the role of the attitude as an explanatory tool in the syntax of belles-lettres is considered. The relevance of the study is due to the following: in the theory of belles-lettres, there is no generally accepted idea of how the syntactic form acquires aesthetic significance. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that the idea of the attitude, which is interpreted differently in the theory of belles-lettres, receives a new impulse for development based on the concept of D. N. Uznadze. Through the prism of the attitude, an analysis of the realizations of the syntactic form of sequential subordination of subordinate predicative constructions in the satirical play-miniature of V. Ardov “This is what your references did ...” has been performed. It is shown that the speech system, in which the uses of this syntactic form are combined, is formed on the basis of their common participation in the embodiment of a satirical attitude, putting them on the background of other syntactic units, inclusion in a syntactic experiment that reflects the dynamics of a satirical collision, performing compositional organizing, visual and suggestive functions. It is noted that when the satirical unit is “connected” to the attitude of the syntactic form of sequential submission in polynomial complex sentences, there is an orientation both to the constructive model and, in particular, to its various violations.

LEXICO-SEMANTIC PECULIARITIES OF ACRONYMS OF MODERN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The article analyzes the lexical-semantic peculiarities of acronyms of modern English based on materials of modern SMS-correspondence. It has been established that appearance of contests of SMS-poems clearly show the popularity of SMS-language. Moreover, a book, devoted to the art of shortenings, is going to be published in the UK. In addition, Oxford University philologists include a short vocabulary used in writing SMS-messages in a short Oxford dictionary. With the help of SMS-language, young people ask out for a date and even confess their love. A number of the most popular acronyms based on materials of modern SMScorrespondence has been analyzed. Overall, the lexical unit LOL is derived from Laughing Out Loud or Lots Of Laughs, with semantic meanings such as 1. loud laughter; 2. a jest about someone. At the first sight, it may seem that these meanings are synonymous, but there are some differences between them. The lexical unit LOL, meaning “a jest about someone”, appeared in the 1990s. American programmers invented the abbreviation. At that time, it was popular to learn programming languages and be fond of systems, but most people, who took this up, did not understand much, but believed that they were doing everything right. These people began to be called LOL (lamer on-line). It has been generalized that the components of the abbreviation ILY are the syntactical unit I Love You with the respective semantic meaning. Usually, this abbreviation is used in communication on the Internet. It is frequently replaced by other abbreviations with the same semantic meaning. It may be ILU. The shortening appeared from I love you, but the unit YOU was replaced with its consonant phoneme “U”. Sometimes, when looking at the correspondence between young people, you can find the following set of numbers: 143. This number also characterizes the expression I Love You. Abbreviations are used by people of any age in spoken language, in the Internet communication, in different fields of professional activity (in medicine, military and business spheres, etc.). They can be found in advertisements and on product packaging. Names of some restaurants are also represented in the form of abbreviations. Those shortenings and abbreviations have also been widely used in modern American fiction literature.