Syntactic Representation Research Articles

Обнаружение уязвимостей умных контрактов с помощью модели, основанной на синтаксическом и семантическом совмещённом обучении

Detection of vulnerabilities in smart contracts is of great importance for protection of digital assets. Today many researches reveal the features of the contract code using deep learning, but often use a single form of code representation. This does not allow extracting the semantics and structure of the code fully to detect various vulnerabilities. The article proposes vulnerability detection model based on fusion of syntactic and semantic features. Using TextCNN tool and graph neural networks, it is possible to extract syntactic and se-mantic representation from the abstract syntactic tree and the graph of the contract control flow. Combining the features the model increases the detection accuracy and recovery rate for five types of vulnerabilities reaching the average accuracy of 95% and the recovery rate of 91% that ensures effective detection of smart contract vulnerabilities.

On the criteria for detracting stable models from fixed phrase schemes

The article is devoted to the identification of a system of criteria that allow to distinguish stable models from fixed phrase schemes. The distinction between stable models and fixed phrase schemes as different classes of syntactic phraseological units is one of the most complex and important problems of the modern theory of syntactic phraseology. An additional difficulty lies in the fact that fixed phrase schemes belong to the core of syntactic phraseology, and stable models to its periphery. The solution to this problem is the relevance, purpose and novelty of this study. The language material is borrowed from the specialized dictionary of the author of the study. The total number of syntactic constructions analyzed is 123 fixed phrase schemes. Illustrative material is borrowed from the texts of fiction, the language of which qualifies as the modern Russian language. The study uses the descriptive method, the method of component analysis of the semantic structure of the sentence, syntactic modeling, phraseological analysis, transformational method, as well as methods of etymological, contextual and comparative analysis. Stable models of the Russian Language are investigated in the aspect of the syntactic phraseology theory: a set of characteristics is defined that allow them to be considered in the system of various classes of syntactic phraseological units, as well as allowing them to be distinguished from free syntactic constructions; integral and differential features of stable models and fixed phrase schemes are established, which are qualified as absolute (differentiating) and relative (optional). Absolute criteria include the following: the nature of rethinking the producing syntactic construction (a single lexeme or the entire syntactic construction as a whole is being rethought); the presence/absence of a compulsory component; the presence/absence of deactualization/ grammaticalization/lexicization of the syntactic structure components; the presence/absence of transformation of the syntactic meaning of the producing structure. The relative criteria are the following: relevance/irrelevance of parsing; the presence/absence of transformation of the functional type of the producing syntactic construction.

Polish Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs

The paper investigates the morphosyntax of Polish synthetic comparative adjectives and adverbs. It is argued that we can predict the distribution of different classes of adjectival roots and suffixes if we adopt the idea that both types of morphemes lexicalize syntactic constituents, the central tenet of Nanosyntax. The paper makes a case for two central claims. One is that the syn-sem properties of adjectives can be described with a finegrained syntactic sequence proposed for Slovak in Vanden Wyngaerd et al. (2020). The other one is that the lexical properties of Polish gradable adverbs follow from the syntactic representation of the adverb as properly containing the syntactic representation of the adjective.

O konstrukcji ___, ale nie___ i podobnych w języku polskim

The main impulse for this study was the difficulty of representing the ale nie construction in a currently created syntactic corpus. One of the two variants of this construction involves an unusual interaction with genitive of negation. In the article, we discuss the proposed syntactic representations of such structures and notice their advantages and disadvantages. We also consider the features that distinguish the interpretation variants, which can aid manual annotation of syntactic structures in the corpus. In the final part, we examine the relative frequency of using both variants of the discussed structures.

Structural priming from production to comprehension in aphasia

ABSTRACT Background Many people with aphasia (PWA) show deficits in sentence production and comprehension, in part, due to an inefficient mapping between messages and syntactic structures. Structural priming—the tendency to repeat previously encountered sentence structures—has been shown to support implicit syntactic learning within and across production and comprehension modalities in healthy adults. Structural priming is also effective in facilitating sentence production and comprehension in PWA. However, less is known about whether priming in one modality changes PWA’s performance in the other modality, crucial evidence needed for applying structural priming as a cost-effective intervention strategy for PWA. Aims This study examined (a) whether production to comprehension cross-modality priming is effective in PWA, (b) whether priming-induced changes in syntactic comprehension lasted in the absence of an immediate prime, and (c) whether there is a significant correlation between individuals’ priming effects and the change in their comprehension following priming. Methods & Procedures Thirteen PWA and 13 age-matched control participants completed a pre-test, a production-to-comprehension priming block, and a post-test. In the pre- and post-tests, participants completed a sentence-picture matching task with sentences involving interpretations of an ambiguous prepositional phrase (e.g., The teacher is poking the monk with a bat). Participants were free to choose a picture corresponding to a high attachment (HA; e.g., the teacher is using the bat to poke the monk) or a low attachment (LA; e.g., the monk is holding the bat) interpretation. In the priming block, participants produced LA sentences as primes and then completed a sentence-picture matching task for comprehension targets, similar to the pre-test. Results Age-matched controls and PWA showed a significant priming effect when comparing the priming block to the pre-test. In both groups, the priming effect persisted when comparing picture selections in the pre- and post-tests. At the individual level, age-matched controls who showed larger priming effects also selected more LA pictures in the post-test compared to the pre-test, indicating that the priming effect accounted for the magnitude of change from the pre- to post-test. This correlation was also found in PWA. Conclusions These findings suggest that production-to-comprehension structural priming is effective and persistent in PWA and controls, in line with the view that structural priming is a form of implicit learning. Further, the findings suggest that syntactic representations are shared between modalities, and therefore, production influences future comprehension. Cross-modality structural priming may have clinical potential to improve sentence processing in PWA.

Transformer Grammars: Augmenting Transformer Language Models with Syntactic Inductive Biases at Scale

Abstract We introduce Transformer Grammars (TGs), a novel class of Transformer language models that combine (i) the expressive power, scalability, and strong performance of Transformers and (ii) recursive syntactic compositions, which here are implemented through a special attention mask and deterministic transformation of the linearized tree. We find that TGs outperform various strong baselines on sentence-level language modeling perplexity, as well as on multiple syntax-sensitive language modeling evaluation metrics. Additionally, we find that the recursive syntactic composition bottleneck which represents each sentence as a single vector harms perplexity on document-level language modeling, providing evidence that a different kind of memory mechanism—one that is independent of composed syntactic representations—plays an important role in current successful models of long text.

ANALISIS FRASA ENDOSENTRIS DAN EKSOSENTRIS PADA KORAN DIGITAL DETIK.COM BERJUDUL “KAPOLRI LARANG POLISI TILANG MANUAL”

This study aims to describe the use of endocentric and exocentric phrases in the news “Kapolri Larang Polisi Tilang Manual” in the digital newspaper Detik.com October 2022 edition. The descriptions in this study include, patterns and forms of endocentric and excocentric phrases. This research conducts a qualitative descriptive method. The data is gained from the news “Kapolri Larang Polisi Tilang Manual” in the digital newspaper Detik.com October 2022 edition. All of endosentric and excocentric phrases from the news “Kapolri Larang Polisi Tilang Manual” in the digital newspaper Detik.com October 2022 edition were the object this study. The data collection techniques that used in this study are reading and note-taking techniques. The data analysis technique is descriptive analysis technique. The result of this research is that the phrase has various types in it. This study analyzes endocentric and exocentric phrases. The results showed that there were three types of endocentric phrases, namely coordinating endocentric phrases, attributive endocentric phrases and appositive endocentric phrases. The study found two types of exocentric phrases with two types, namely directive exocentric phrases and non-directive exocentric phrases. This research is useful in developing syntactic theory about phrases, especially endocentric and exocentric phrases, and could increase knowledge about types of phrases.

What neural oscillations can and cannot do for syntactic structure building.

Understanding what someone says requires relating words in a sentence to one another as instructed by the grammatical rules of a language. In recent years, the neurophysiological basis for this process has become a prominent topic of discussion in cognitive neuroscience. Current proposals about the neural mechanisms of syntactic structure building converge on a key role for neural oscillations in this process, but they differ in terms of the exact function that is assigned to them. In this Perspective, we discuss two proposed functions for neural oscillations - chunking and multiscale information integration - and evaluate their merits and limitations taking into account a fundamentally hierarchical nature of syntactic representations in natural languages. We highlight insights that provide a tangible starting point for a neurocognitive model of syntactic structure building.

The contributions of proficiency and semantics to the bilingual sentence superiority effect

AbstractA long-standing question about bilingualism concerns which representations are shared across languages. Recent work has revealed a bilingual Sentence Superiority Effect (SSE) among French–English bilinguals reading mixed-language sentences: identification of target words is more accurate in syntactically grammatical than ungrammatical sentences. While this ability to connect words across the two languages has been attributed to a rapid parsing of shared syntactic representations, outstanding questions remain about the role of semantics. Here, we replicate the SSE in Spanish–English bilinguals (e.g., better identification of vacío in “my vaso is vacío” [my glass is empty] than “is vaso my vacío” [is glass my empty]). Importantly, we report evidence that semantics do contribute to word identification, but significantly less than syntax and only in the context of syntactically grammatical sentences. Moreover, the effect is moderated by language proficiency, further constraining the conditions under which shared cross-linguistic representations are rapidly accessed in the bilingual mind.

Event detection with multi-order edge-aware graph convolution networks

Event detection, specifically, identifying the type of events in a piece of text, is a crucial task in information extraction. Previous event detection task research proved that a syntactic graph based on a dependency tree can be integrated into a graph convolutional neural network to better capture the context of a sentence. However, most of the existing studies rely only on first-order syntactic relations and usually ignore dependence label information. In this paper, we propose a multi-order edge-aware graph convolution network (MEA-GCN) based on multi-order grammar and typed dependent label information. We use the BERT representation and the multi-head attention update mechanism to generate a variety of multi-order syntactic graph representations; consequently, our model can automatically learn dependent information and improve the representation ability of the syntactic relations. The experimental results on the widely used ACE 2005 and TAC KBP 2015 show that our model achieves significant improvement over the competitive baseline methods.

Processing of Chinese Base-Generated-Topic Sentences by L1-Korean Speakers: An Eye-Tracking Study.

According to the shallow structure hypothesis (SSH), adult L2 learners rely more on lexical-semantic and pragmatic information but less so on syntactic information in online language processing, ending up with shallower syntactic representation. To test the SSH, we conducted an eye-tracking experiment on L1-Korean L2-Chinese learners with native Chinese speakers as the baseline, investigating their processing of Chinese base-generated-topic sentences (BGT). The results show that both the intermediate and advanced Korean learners of Chinese are sensitive to and can make use of syntactic information, but only the advanced learners are sensitive to the semantic constraint when processing Chinese BGT sentences, providing evidence against the SSH.

Syntax, Truth, and the Fate of Sentences

Abstract Truth appears to be a predicate of sentence-like structures. This raises the question of what a sentence is (or what it is to be sentence-like) such that it is truth-apt. A natural move is to treat sentences and truth-aptness as somehow conceptually or metaphysical coeval—made for each other. This resolution conflicts, however, with now standard approaches in syntactic theory that treat sentences as mere epiphenomena. Siding with the developments in syntax, the paper argues that truth-aptness properly belongs, not to sentences, but to clauses as structures that can be selected by verbs that specify truth-apt states. It is further argued that this arrangement is perfectly consistent with truth-conditional semantics.

Syntactic Rules and Research Ethics: A Critical Exposition

It is quite worrisome that syntactic norms and values, which ideally guide the arrangement of words, phrases, clauses and other lexical categories, are not strictly upheld and followed by many researchers and even research bodies. That implies violating some basics of research ethics. This study rises to make a critical exposition of syntactic rules in research ethics, which are often violated. Relying on observation and secondary data, the study demonstrates that poor knowledge and negligence of syntactic rules largely accounts for the violation of syntactic rules in research works by researchers and many concerned research bodies. It shows that unacceptable grammatical structures have grave implications for the overall given research work. Also, phrase structure rules correlate with interpretative rules, just as syntax and semantics also correlate. The study concludes that since language is rule-governed, the violation of syntactic rules in research work implies the violation of language rules and research ethics. The study is anchored on the syntactic theory of Universal Grammar, which explains how standard syntactic rules and research ethics are universal, and must be followed in order to have acceptable and correct sentences and research.

Expletive Subject Clitics in Northern Italo-Romance

This article examines the syntax of subject clitics in northern Italian dialects. Statistical analysis is performed on a sample of 350 dialects to show that the co-variation between syntactic variables is significant. The variables under examination are the occurrence of subject clitics with non-dislocated subjects (e.g., the wh element who); the occurrence of subject clitics with nonthematic predicates (e.g., weather verbs); and the occurrence of subject clitics with subjects of any person. Syntactic variables are in turn linked to verbal agreement; in the above contexts, clitics are more readily found in dialects with “poor” inflection. Theoretical issues concerning the syntactic representation of subject clitics, null subjects, and doubling are addressed in light of quantitative findings.

The ordering of the affixes in the verb structure

The research is entitled (The order of the affixes in the verb structure). The location and ordering of the derivational and inflectional additions attached to the base of words, whether in the lexicon or in the syntactic representation, is one of the issues and matters in morphological and syntactic studies. This problem has led to the emergence of several assumptions and hypothesis to reveal and know the structure of that order and the extent of the proximity and distance of the derivational and inflectional affixes to the base of the word. In order to arrive at that structure and the reasons for the adhesion of these increments to the base, we presented two questions in the research (1) how is the order of the derivational and inflectional affixes in relation to the verb base in the Kurdish language? Which one is the pre/post of the base? (2) How close and remote are the derivational and inflectional affixes for the verb base in the Kurdish language? Which one is closer/furthest from the base structure? In order to find the answer to these two questions, the research was based on morphological hypotheses such as the split-morphology hypothesis and the complexity-based ordering hypothesis. The order and position of the verbs in the Kurdish language are based on the basic properties of the verb, such as (time, direction, place,..), meaning which of the derivational and morphological affixes include those properties whose rank and position are closer to the verb base, and vice versa.

Graph Convolutional Networks with POS Gate for Aspect-Based Sentiment Analysis

We make daily comments on online platforms (e.g., social networks), and such natural language texts often contain sentiment (e.g., positive and negative) for certain aspects (e.g., food and service). If we can automatically extract the aspect-based sentiment from the texts, then it will help many services or products to overcome their limitations of particular aspects. There have been studies of aspect sentiment classification (ASC) that finds sentiment towards particular aspects. Recent studies mostly adopt deep-learning models or graph neural networks as these techniques are capable of capturing linguistic patterns that contributed to performance improvement in various natural language processing tasks. In this paper, for the ASC task, we propose a new hybrid architecture of graph convolutional network (GCN) and recurrent neural network. We design a gate mechanism that jointly models word embeddings and syntactic representation of sentences. By experimental results on five datasets, we show that the proposed model outperforms other recent models and also verify that the gate mechanism contributes to the performance improvement. The overall F1 scores that we achieved is 66.64∼76.80%.

Implicit learning of structure across time: A longitudinal investigation of syntactic priming in young English-acquiring children

Theories of language acquisition vary significantly in their assumptions regarding the content of children’s early syntactic representations and how they subsequently develop towards the adult state. An important methodological tool in tapping syntactic knowledge is priming. In the current paper, we report the first longitudinal investigation of syntactic priming in children, to test the competing predictions of three different theoretical accounts. A sample of 106 children completed a syntactic priming task testing the English active/passive alternation every six months from 36 months to 54 months of age. We tracked both the emergence and development of the abstract priming effect and lexical boost effect. The lexical boost effect emerged late and increased in magnitude over development, whilst the abstract priming effect emerged early and, in a subsample of participants who produced at least one passive at 36 months, decreased in magnitude over time. In addition, there was substantial variation in the emergence of abstract priming amongst our sample, which was significantly predicted by language proficiency measured six months prior. We conclude that children’s representation of the passive is abstracted early, with lexically dependent priming coming online only later in development. The results are best explained by an implicit learning account of acquisition (Chang, F., Dell, G., S., & Bock, K. 2006. Becoming Syntactic. Psychological Review, 113, 234–272), which induces dynamic syntactic representations from the input that continue to change across developmental time.

Syntactic and lexical-ase-are distinct suffixes

AbstractIn addition to the syntactic (inflectional) causative suffix-(s)ase-, Japanese displays a lexical (derivational) causative suffix-(a)se-(okur-ase-‘delay’,no-se-‘place on’) whosea-zero alternation is general in the stem-level phonology. Because the UR of syntactic-(s)ase-must include thesof its postvocalic alternant, the two suffixes necessarily have distinct phonological forms; there is thus no way to treat them as “high attachment” and “low attachment” versions of a single element. The division of labor between syntactic-(s)ase-and lexical-(a)se-invites the conclusion that no causative suffix is syntactic in some cases and lexical in others; if so, causatives pose no challenge to the position that while Japanese inflectional morphology is the phonological realization of syntactic representations, derivational morphology involves lexical listing of stems. The conclusion that there is no causative suffix that spans the syntactic/lexical boundary is validated by showing that forms that have been taken in the literature as exemplifying lexical-(s)ase-are in fact either lexical-(a)se-or syntactic-(s)ase-. As part of this demonstration, it is shown that, with minor exceptions, verb stems in-ase-have arisen as variants of pre-existing stems in-as-, and an explanation for this ongoing process of replacement is proposed.

DP-Parse: Finding Word Boundaries from Raw Speech with an Instance Lexicon

AbstractFinding word boundaries in continuous speech is challenging as there is little or no equivalent of a ‘space’ delimiter between words. Popular Bayesian non-parametric models for text segmentation (Goldwater et al., 2006, 2009) use a Dirichlet process to jointly segment sentences and build a lexicon of word types. We introduce DP-Parse, which uses similar principles but only relies on an instance lexicon of word tokens, avoiding the clustering errors that arise with a lexicon of word types. On the Zero Resource Speech Benchmark 2017, our model sets a new speech segmentation state-of-the-art in 5 languages. The algorithm monotonically improves with better input representations, achieving yet higher scores when fed with weakly supervised inputs. Despite lacking a type lexicon, DP-Parse can be pipelined to a language model and learn semantic and syntactic representations as assessed by a new spoken word embedding benchmark. 1

Syntactic Theory Perception on Language Acquisition

This paper focuses on identifying the syntactic theory perception on acquiring first language. The paper highlights the role and function of language syntactic structure in childhood on acquiring first language from birth and using it in communicative situations in reality later. The paper, however, emphasizes the impact of grammatical development, focusing mainly on nativist and usage-based, on acquiring first language. The paper bases its hypotheses and assumptions on Chomsky’s universal grammar and transformation grammar theories. The study, moreover, exposes language as a symbolic system and how it is formed in mind from birth, focusing mainly on the difference between human language and animal sounds. A brief idea about linguistic and communicative competence is presented to associate them to first language acquisition. the study concludes that grammar, which is part of the syntactic theory, is concerned with discovering the principles and sets of rules used for governing the structures of utterances and sentences. These principles and sets of rules constitute what is called linguistic competence of language. This linguistic competence is what helps children acquire their first language.