Measures Of Syntactic Complexity Research Articles

Phraseological complexity and low- and intermediate-level L2 learners’ writing quality

AbstractThis study explores the extent to which phraseological complexity measures can predict second-language (L2) writing quality of low- and intermediate-level learners, especially in comparison with the more traditional syntactic and lexical complexity measures. To measure phraseological complexity, we evaluated phraseological diversity and phraseological sophistication by focusing on two commonly-used phraseological units (adjective-noun and verb-direct-object combinations). Our findings show that phraseological, syntactic, and lexical complexity measures can respectively explain 36.0, 34.4, and 56.5% of variance in writing scores. Although lexical complexity measures are responsible for more variance in writing scores, all three complexity dimensions contribute to the predictive power of writing scores, as evinced by the combined model explaining 63.4% of variance. Most phraseological complexity measures were loaded onto individual factors by the factor analysis, suggesting that phraseological complexity is an independent dimension of L2 complexity.

Comparing predictors of sentence self-paced reading times: Syntactic complexity versus transitional probability metrics.

When estimating the influence of sentence complexity on reading, researchers typically opt for one of two main approaches: Measuring syntactic complexity (SC) or transitional probability (TP). Comparisons of the predictive power of both approaches have yielded mixed results. To address this inconsistency, we conducted a self-paced reading experiment. Participants read sentences of varying syntactic complexity. From two alternatives, we selected the set of SC and TP measures, respectively, that provided the best fit to the self-paced reading data. We then compared the contributions of the SC and TP measures to self-paced reading times when entered into the same model. Our results showed that while both measures explained significant portions of variance in reading times (over and above control variables: word/sentence length, word frequency and word position) when included in independent models, their contributions changed drastically when SC and TP were entered into the same model. Specifically, we only observed significant effects of TP. We conclude that in our experiment the control variables explained the bulk of variance. When comparing the small effects of SC and TP, the effects of TP appear to be more robust.

Syntactic complexity in translated and non-translated texts: A corpus-based study of simplification.

This study approaches the investigation of the simplification hypotheses in corpus-based translation studies from a syntactic complexity perspective. The research is based on two comparable corpora, the English monolingual part of COCE (Corpus of Chinese-English) and the native English corpus of FLOB (Freiburg-LOB Corpus of British English). Using the 13 syntactic complexity measures falling into five subconstructs (i.e. length of production unit, amount of subordination, amount of coordination, phrasal complexity and overall sentence complexity), our results show that translation as a whole is less complex compared to non-translation, reflected most prominently in the amount of subordination and overall sentence complexity. Further pairwise comparison of the four subgenres of the corpora shows mixed results. Specifically, the translated news is homogenous to native news as evidenced by the complexity measures; the translated genres of general prose and academic writing are less complex compared to their native counterparts while translated fiction is more complex than non-translated fiction. It was found that mean sentence length always produced a significant effect on syntactic complexity, with higher syntactic complexity for longer sentence lengths in both corpora. ANOVA test shows a highly significant main effect of translation status, with higher syntactic complexity in the non-translated texts (FLOB) than the translated texts (COCE), which provides support for the simplification hypothesis in translation. It is also found that, apart from translation status, genre is an important variable in affecting the complexity level of translated texts. Our study offers new insights into the investigation of simplification hypothesis from the perspective of translation from English into Chinese.

Using corpus analysis to extend experimental research: Genre effects in L2 writing

This study investigates differences in the writing performance of L1-Korean learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in response to tasks requiring different genres of writing. Utilizing data controlled for L1 and proficiency level from the Gachon Learner Corpus, the study partially replicates a study by Yoon and Polio (2017), and examines genre effects by comparing descriptive and argumentative essays. A total of 481 essays (270 descriptive and 211 argumentative) from two proficiency groups were analyzed in order to evaluate the effects of different genres on EFL learners' writing performance. Using syntactic complexity and lexical complexity measures, the analysis found statistically significant differences between the two genres. The L2 learners produced more subordination, more of particular structures, and more sophisticated vocabulary in argumentative writing than in descriptive writing. These findings of genre effects can be interpreted on the basis of either the cognition hypothesis or the role of genres' communicative function. No proficiency differences were detected between the two genres except in lexical diversity. The study's findings suggest that existing corpora may be useful for studies seeking to confirm or extend experimental research.

L2 Learners' Motivation Beliefs and Writing by Self-regulatory Summarizing

This study aimed to explore how explicit summarizing practices combined with self-regulation prompts influence motivation beliefs and writing performance by L2 learners at the beginner level. As a theoretical framework, the relationship among self-regulatory learning, motivational components and language performance was discussed. Regarding six motivational scales measured by using a shortened MSLQ, the results revealed there was significant and positive change in all the motivation scales after involved in the intervention: the highest perception change in both ‘intrinsic goal orientation’ and ‘task value’, followed by ‘control of learning belief’ and ‘self-efficacy for learning and performance’, and the least increase in ‘extrinsic goal orientation’, while negative perception of ‘test anxiety’ was significantly decreased. In terms of syntactic complexity measures as objective indices for language development, the length of production including the ‘mean length of sentence’, ‘T-unit’, and ‘clause’, was most significantly increased, followed by the number of ‘clauses per T-unit’ and ‘complex nominals per clause’ for phrase-level measures. These results indicated that L2 beginner learners' motivation beliefs for learning could positively increase and their writing performance could be improved with more complex syntactic forms of longer sentence, clause and phrase levels, when involved in systematic summarizing practices with self-regulation prompts, teacher guidance and feedback. (Dankook University)

The effect of task complexity on integrated writing performance: The case of multiple-text source-based writing

Previous research on the effect of task complexity on L2 writing performance has been mostly concerned with independent writing, and there is a paucity of empirical findings on integrated writing tasks in this regard. Thus, the present research investigated the impact of multiple-document integration on source-based writing. Two groups, with comparable general language proficiency, independent writing ability, and integrated writing ability participated in this research. In the simple task, the students were supposed to summarise a single text, whereas the participants in the complex task were asked to write a summary for a three-passage text dealing with the same issue, which was more cognitively taxing. The results revealed that task complexity had a significant impact on some measures of syntactic complexity (mean length of clause, subordination, and mean number of modifiers per noun phrase), lexical diversity, and causal cohesion, had an adverse influence on accuracy, and had no significant effect on lexical sophistication. The implications of these findings for L2 writing research and pedagogy are offered.

Morphological complexity and rated writing proficiency

Abstract Linguistic complexity measures are used to describe second language (L2) performance and assess levels of proficiency and development. Although morphology is considered crucial in L2 acquisition, morphological complexity has been relatively neglected, hindering comprehensive views of grammatical complexity in L2. This article presents an application of a recently proposed metric of morphological diversity, the Morphological Complexity Index (MCI), in an L2 Spanish corpus of 113 essays classified into four proficiency levels by expert evaluators. The aim of the study is to investigate the relationships of MCI with subjectively rated proficiency and with other four quantitative measures of L2 complexity. Results indicate that morphological complexity, as measured by MCI, does not vary significantly across proficiency levels in this corpus. The MCI shows significant correlations with lexical but not with syntactic complexity measures. Findings are interpreted in the light of the characteristics of the corpus and the acquisition of the Spanish verbal system.

Focused direct corrective feedback: Effects on the elementary English learners’ written syntactic complexity

This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners’ written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class. The experimental group received FDCF, while the control (i.e. No CF) group was provided only with additional writing practice. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer was utilized to calculate the five indices of syntactic complexity measures, including mean length of clause (MLC), mean length of sentence (MLS), mean length of T-unit (MLT), clauses per sentence (C/S), and verb phrases per T-unit (VP/T). The MANOVA test revealed no statistically significant difference between the two groups.

Accuracy and complexity as connected growers in L2 English speech at secondary school – a case study of a good, average, and poor language learner

Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST), which originated in the natural sciences, has recently been applied to second language acquisition, underlining the interdisciplinary character of this humanistic discipline. According to this theory, language is a complex dynamic system consisting of subsystems which develop in a non-linear way, forming different kinds of supportive, competitive, or conditional relationships. What is more, these subsystems compete for the learner’s limited resources, which causes trade-offs within and between language subsystems, such as complexity, accuracy, and fluency, especially in speech. The present paper constitutes a part of a short series of articles which present different aspects of the same longitudinal case study on the development of L2 English speech at secondary school. The aim of this paper is to examine the relationships between language accuracy and a number of specific measures of syntactic complexity, i.e. general sentence complexity, subordination, coordination, and nominalisation; as well as lexical complexity, i.e. lexical density, sophistication, and variation, in the case of a good, average, and poor language learner at secondary school. In general, the results showed that the relationships between the selected variables fluctuated over time and often differed in the case of a good, average, and poor language learner.

Syntactic complexity across academic research article part-genres: A cross-disciplinary perspective

This study examined eight measures of syntactic complexity across published research article part-genres (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) and three social science disciplines (Applied Linguistics, Psychology, and Economics). The corpus of 240 complete texts was analyzed using a modified version of the Syntactic Complexity Analyzer (SCA), and the measures were compared across disciplinary and part-genre variables using a Two-way MANOVA and a series of follow up MANOVA and ANOVA tests. The findings highlight a significant large effect of both discipline and part-genre on all eight syntactic complexity indices, as well as a significant but small effect size for the interaction of move and discipline on the complexity measures. Important disciplinary and part-genre based differences in the use of syntactically complex structures are discussed, as are the implications of these findings on EAP writing research and pedagogy.

The impact of a short-term stay abroad on L2 Spanish syntactic complexity development in narratives

Abstract Given the notable increase in participation in short-term (e.g., eight weeks or less) study abroad, especially in the US, recent empirical work on the role of context in second language (L2) learning has sought to investigate the impact of a short-term stay abroad on language development. The present study examined English-speaking learners’ syntactic complexity development in oral narratives after a four-week stay abroad. With regard to three measures of syntactic complexity (length of analysis of speech [AS]-units, number of clauses per AS-unit, length of clause), findings revealed that the study abroad group demonstrated no statistically significant change over the study period. However, individual-level analyses revealed that over half of the study abroad learners increased complexity in narratives in terms of clause length. Further, half of the study abroad learners exhibited increases in syntactic complexity on at least two of the three syntactic complexity measures examined.

Investigating Adolescent Discourse in Critical Thinking: Monologic Responses to Stories Containing a Moral Dilemma.

Purpose The adolescent developmental task of establishing autonomy from parents is supported through various aspects of executive functioning, including critical thinking. Our aim was to investigate younger and older adolescent language performance in form, content, and use in response to a moral dilemma task. Method Forty-four typically developing adolescents completed a language sampling task, responding to stories that contained a moral dilemma for one of the characters. Two age groups participated: younger adolescents (n = 24, 12;2-13;11 [years;months]) and older adolescents (n = 20, 16;1-17;11). Participants produced a monologue in response to an open-ended question prompt. Responses were transcribed and analyzed for discourse production on measures of form (verbal productivity and syntactic complexity) and content (semantic diversity and word percentages in three semantic domains: affective, social, and cognitive). Language use was evaluated using a coding system based on Bloom's revised taxonomy of thinking. Results There were no significant group differences in performance on measures of syntactic complexity and semantic diversity. Significant differences were found in adolescents' language using Bloom's revised taxonomy. The younger adolescents demonstrated a significantly higher proportion of utterances at Level 1 (remembering and understanding) compared to older adolescents, while the older age group produced a higher proportion at Level 3 (evaluating and creating). Conclusions The moral dilemma task was effective in demonstrating the growth of adolescent language skills in use of language for critical thinking. The results highlight the clinical utility of the moral dilemma task in engaging adolescents in discourse involving critical thinking, whereas the associated coding scheme, based on Bloom's revised taxonomy of thinking, may differentiate levels of critical thinking and provide direction for intervention.

Negative symptoms and speech pauses in youths at clinical high risk for psychosis

Aberrant pauses are characteristic of schizophrenia and are robustly associated with its negative symptoms. Here, we found that pause behavior was associated with negative symptoms in individuals at clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis, and with measures of syntactic complexity—phrase length and usage of determiners that introduce clauses—that we previously showed in this same CHR cohort to help comprise a classifier that predicted psychosis. These findings suggest a common impairment in discourse planning and verbal self-monitoring that affects both speech and language, and which is detected in clinical ratings of negative symptoms.

Informing Academic Writing Pedagogy through the Study of Phrase-frames

Second Language Development (SLD) research has investigated aspects of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) to understand how English language learners (ELLs) develop linguistic faculties related to language production, especially in academic writing (Biber & Gray, 2010; Biber, Gray & Ponpoon, 2011; Kyle & Crossley, 2018; Lu & Ai, 2015). Contributing to the current body of SLD research, this study addresses complexity in expert academic argumentative essays by investigating language at the phrasal level through phrase-frames (PFs). Phrase-frames are fixed or semi-fixed syntactic structures with a variable slot that might be considered another measure of syntactic complexity. This study aimed to identify if native and non-native expert writers in the Michigan Corpus of Upper-Level Student Papers (MICUSP) displayed significant differences in their use of these frames concerning their predictability, variability, and function. Results of the study indicated expert academic writers in this corpus use highly variable, highly unpredictable structures which confirm the complexity, elaboration, and explicitness unique to the academic register. Understanding of these register features through the identified PFs was used to develop sample pedagogical materials to promote more complex writing in academic genres.

한국어 분석 도구를 활용한 국어교과서 텍스트의 장르 비교 분석

This study aimed to investigate the characteristics of three different genres, including argumentative, expository, and narrative texts that were selected from high school Korean textbooks revised by the 2015 National Curriculum with Auto-Kohesion, a Korean text analysis tool. The indices used for the current study included basic measures (the number of words, the number of sentences, the average sentence length, the average word length), word frequency (word frequency for contents words and all words), lexical diversity (type-token ratio for content words), personal pronouns (the first person pronouns, the second person pronouns, the third person pronouns, all pronouns), connectives (causal, additive, and all connectives), syntactic complexity (the ratio of modifiers, the ratio of constituents), and reference cohesion measures. The analysis demonstrated that the argumentative and expository texts were not significantly different in all measures. However, the differences between the two genres versus narratives were substantial; a greater use of personal pronouns and lower frequency words as well as more words and sentences was identified in the narrative texts, whereas the argumentative and expository texts included the higher text cohesion and the sentence constituent ratio along with the longer average words and sentences. The argumentative texts have been shown to include more personal pronouns than the other two genres. The current study provides some implications for designing Korean textbooks and analyzing the characteristics of different genres.

Fluency and complexity as coupled growers in speaking English at secondary school – A case study of a good, average, and poor language learner

One of the main assumptions of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) is that internally complex language subsystems develop non-linearly while entering different kinds of supportive, competitive, conditional, or dual relationships which are characterised by trade-offs caused by learners’ restricted cognitive processing, especially in foreign language speech. The present paper belongs to a short series of articles which examines various aspects of the development of L2 English speech at secondary school on basis of the same longitudinal, exploratory, and corpus-based case study. The aim of this paper is to investigate the dynamics of the relationships between fluency and both syntactic and lexical complexity in the speech of a good, average, and poor language learner at the level of secondary school. Syntactic complexity was investigated in terms of general sentence complexity, subordination, coordination, and nominalisation, whereas lexical complexity was construed in terms of lexical density, sophistication, and variation. In general, the results indicated predominantly supportive relationships between fluency and different measures of syntactic complexity but competitive or dual relationships between fluency and lexical complexity. However, the relationships between the selected variables fluctuated over time and often differed in the case of a good, average, and poor language learner.

Effect of Speaker’s Fatigue on Features of Spoken Discourse

In clinical linguistics, spoken discourse analysis is a crucial part of diagnostics as well as fundamental research of speech produced by people with various language impairments. The most common features for assessment are speech fluency, speech failures, errors, and syntactic complexity measures. However, several studies have shown that some of these parameters can be affected by fatigue or physical stress. Our study on narrative and procedural spoken discourse by healthy speakers with different levels of fatigue has shown a significant effect of fatigue level on speech tempo, and the elicitation task significantly affected multiple characteristics of spoken discourse

2015 개정 초등 6학년과 중등 1학년 간 영어 교과서 의사소통 기능의 연계성 분석

This study analyses the communicative functions of listening scripts extracted from the 2015 elementary school English 6 and middle school English 1 textbooks in terms of continuity. Auditory data corpora were drawn from all five elementary school English textbooks and five most widely used middle school English textbooks. Each sentence of listening scripts was manually tagged based on the classification of communication functions presented in the 2015 Revised National Curriculum. The corpora were analyzed using 14 syntactic complexity measures with the L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer (Lu, 2010). The findings of this study show that the continuity between the elementary school English 6 and the middle school English 1 textbooks is relatively well-organized. However, concerning the sequence, the elementary school English 6 was found to be more complex than the middle school English 1 in terms of syntactic complexity. It is suggested that future textbook development should correct the reversed complexity in listening scripts found in this study.

Syntactic complexity in individual, collaborative and E-collaborative EFL writing: mediating role of writing modality, L1 and sustained development in focus

This study investigates the potential of individual, collaborative, and E-collaborative writing modalities on the development of syntactic complexity (SC), their sustained effect on SC development, and the potential meditating role of SC of L1 (First Language) in SC of L2 (Second Language). To this end, 90 Iranian intermediate EFL learners participated in individual, collaborative, and E-collaborative writing treatments for 10 sessions. L2 SC on three measures of pre, post, and delayed posttests in three writing modalities were assessed using multidimensional SC measures. Besides, the role of L1 syntactic complexity preferences in L2 SC was examined. The results of ANOVA (analysis of variance) and Repeated Measure ANOVA indicated that individual writing had the highest potential in developing SC of L2 in comparison with other writing modalities. As far as sustainable development is concerned, only the effect of collaborative writing was sustained in delayed posttest. Regression through mediation analysis indicated that the degree of syntactic complexity in L1 significantly mediated L2 SC under individual writing and its mediating effect faded away in collaborative and E-collaborative writing. Analysis of students' perceived efficacy of writing modalities through theme elicitation analysis of students' reflective essay suggests that the centrality of the role of instructors, group leadership and environmental supports in computer mediated learning need to be revisited. Implications and future research directions were discussed.

Words, clauses, sentences, and T-units in learner language: Precise and objective units of measure?

In research on learner language complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF), syntactic complexity is often studied with quantitative measures based on words, clauses, sentences, and T-units. The findings have been mixed, but segmenting learner language into these units of measure has seldom been problematised, even if the need for accurate coding is well known. The present study explores words, clauses, sentences, and T-units as production units in written learner language using a corpus of 352 L2 Finnish texts (28,813 words). The results illustrate how written learner language can be hard to fit into the production unit categories, which are essential for the most frequently used quantitative measures of syntactic complexity. On the one hand, the results support calls to include explicit definitions of the units of measure when reporting findings obtained with these quantitative measures. On the other hand, they align with calls to introduce new measures to better gauge the changes in learner language syntax as it develops with increasing language proficiency.