Symptoms In Mothers Research Articles

Effectiveness of Moderate-Intensity Aerobic Water Exercise during Pregnancy on Quality of Life and Postpartum Depression: A Multi-Center, Randomized Controlled Trial.

Background: The global prevalence of postpartum depression is about 20%. This disease has serious consequences for women, their infants, and their families. The aim of this randomized clinical trial was to analyze the effectiveness and safety of a moderate-intensity aerobic water exercise program on postpartum depression, sleep problems, and quality of life in women at one month after delivery. Methods: This was a multi-center, parallel, randomized, evaluator blinded, controlled trial in a primary care setting. Pregnant women (14–20 weeks gestational age) who had low risk of complications and were from five primary care centers in the area covered by the obstetrics unit of Son Llatzer Hospital (Mallorca, Spain) were invited to participate. A total of 320 pregnant women were randomly assigned to two groups, an intervention group (moderate aquatic aerobic exercise) and a control group (usual prenatal care). One month after birth, sleep quality (MOS sleep), quality of life (EQ-5D), and presence of anxiety or depression (EPDS) were recorded. Findings: Women in the intervention group were less likely to report anxiety or depression on the EQ5D (11.5% vs. 22.7%; p < 0.05) and had a lower mean EPDS score (6.1 ± 1.9 vs. 6.8 ± 2.4, p < 0.010). The two groups had no significant differences in other outcomes, maternal adverse events, and indicators of the newborn status. Conclusion: Moderate-intensity aquatic exercise during pregnancy decreased postpartum anxiety and depressive symptoms in mothers and was safe for mothers and their newborns.

Differential predictors of birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in mothers and fathers – A longitudinal cohort study

BackgroundEvidence on risk factors of birth-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in mothers is increasing, whereas fathers are less examined. This study aims to determine differential predictors of PTSD symptoms in mothers and fathers. MethodsData derive from the DREAM study, including 1,146 mothers and 828 fathers. We assessed mental health, work, and sociodemographic factors during pregnancy, pregnancy- and birth-related factors, and birth-related PTSD symptoms using the Impact of Event Scale-Revised 8 weeks postpartum. Structural equation models were estimated to examine associations between predictors and latent factors of PTSD symptoms for mothers and fathers simultaneously. Scaled chi-square difference tests were used to investigate differences between both groups in predictors. ResultsClinically relevant birth-related PTSD symptoms were found in 2.3% of mothers and 0.7% of fathers. Depressive and anxiety symptoms, pregnancy complications, and poorer subjective birth experience predicted PTSD symptoms in both groups. Additionally, lower support during birth and an unplanned cesarean section predicted PTSD symptoms in mothers, whereas lower job satisfaction, higher job burden, being first-time father, lower education, and mothers’ lower support during birth were predictors for fathers. We found significant differences between groups regarding job burden during pregnancy, support during birth, and an unplanned cesarean section. LimitationsGeneralization of findings might be limited by self-selection bias and some systematic dropout. ConclusionsOur results suggest differential predictors of PTSD symptoms in mothers and fathers. For fathers, less examined factors such as work factors may be important. Identifying differential risk factors may lead to customized prevention and treatment offers.

Feelings of Parental Authenticity Moderate Concurrent Links Between Breastfeeding Experience and Symptoms of Postpartum Depression

A negative breastfeeding experience is a contextual risk factor for the development of postpartum depressive symptoms among mothers. Many current interventions targeted at disrupting this association rely on the ability to make breastfeeding experiences positive. As a beginning step toward identifying alternative approaches, we investigated a potential psychological buffer of the negative relation between breastfeeding experience and symptoms of postpartum depression: feeling authentic in one's role as a parent. Authenticity appears to enhance well-being and buffer negative outcomes more generally, but has largely gone unaddressed in mothers, particularly during the critical peripartum period when depressive symptoms are at increased prevalence. We tested whether three facets of felt authenticity in the parent role (authentic living, acceptance of external influence, and self-alienation) moderated the association between satisfaction with breastfeeding experience and postpartum depressive symptoms in mothers (N = 92, 81% White, 85% non-Hispanic, college-educated, Mage = 30.49). We found that mothers who felt high in authentic living in the parent role showed fewer depressive symptoms when breastfeeding experiences were positive. In addition, we found that the association between negative breastfeeding experience and greater postpartum depression was mitigated when feelings of self-alienation in the parent role, or the sense that one is unaware of or disconnected from who “she really is” as a mother, were low. This work suggests that enhancing women's feelings of connectedness to “who they truly are” as a mother may be protective against some of the negative mental health effects linked to problems with breastfeeding.

A Preliminary Investigation of Psychoneurological Symptoms in Low-Income Mothers.

Exposure to chronic stressors may contribute to the development of psychoneurological symptoms (i.e., fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, sleep disturbance, depressed mood, and pain) that can compromise maternal function. In two studies of low-income mothers, we investigated the presence of psychoneurological symptoms and explored associations between mothers' stressors and psychoneurological symptoms as well as between symptoms and function. We also considered the possible mediating role of the symptoms between stressors and function. We conducted secondary analyses of psychoneurological symptoms in two studies of low-income mothers of infants and toddlers in the United States. Study 1 sampled Latina women with limited English proficiency, whereas Study 2 was conducted with English-speaking women from diverse backgrounds. In both studies, symptoms were measured using items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale and the Medical Outcomes Study Short-Form Health Survey. Maternal function was measured through self-report and researcher observation. In Study 2, stressors were measured using the Everyday Stressors Index. Multiple linear regressions were used to investigate associations while controlling for relevant covariates. In both studies, mothers endorsed a wide range of psychoneurological symptoms. In Study 1, psychoneurological symptoms had significant negative associations with role function, social function, and developmental stimulation. In Study 2, psychoneurological symptoms had significant negative associations with role function, social function, and physical function. Using Aroian test for mediation, we found that psychoneurological symptoms mediated all significant relationships between stressors and maternal functions in Study 2. In two samples of low-income mothers, psychoneurological symptoms were prevalent and associated with chronic stressors and with maternal function and may mediate the association between those two factors. These findings extend prior research on depressive symptoms in mothers by investigating pain as an additional key symptom. The studies advance symptom science by highlighting psychoneurological symptoms in a heterogeneous sample without known health conditions.

Early signs of autism in infants whose mothers suffered from a threatened preterm labour: a 30-month prospective follow-up study.

Infants born after a threatened preterm labour (TPL infants) are at high risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Studying this population may provide insight on the pathophysiological underpinnings of this condition. This study aimed to (i) ascertain the presence and autistic symptom load in TPL infants aged age 30months relative to non-TPL infants, regardless of preterm birth; (ii) explore the association between early (at 6months) psychomotor development and temperament features with the autistic symptom load of TPL infants at age 30months and (iii) examine the association among perinatal risk factors for ASD development with the autistic symptom load of TPL infants at age 30months. A group of 111 mother-infant pairs recruited at TPL diagnosis and a group of 47 healthy mother-infant controls completed the follow-up. Irrespective of preterm birth, TPL infants showed higher autistic symptom load at age 30months than non-TPL infants. TPL infants presented poorer communication and problem-solving skills, reduced smiling and laughter, and greater vocal reactivity at age 6months, predicting higher autistic symptom load at age 30months. Higher levels of anxiety symptoms in TPL mothers after a TPL diagnosis also predicted higher autistic symptom load for the infants at age 30months. These results suggest that TPL infants may be an undescribed cluster, with features that differentiate them from other "at-risk" populations. These findings support the need for routine assessment of TPL infants and screening of anxiety symptoms in mothers.

Effects of Parenting Stress and Depressive Symptoms on Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

This study explored how parenting stress can affect depressive symptoms in parents, between parents, and, ultimately, their children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. First, we examined the relationship between parenting stress and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers. Second, we examined the mutual influence of fathers’ and mothers’ parenting stress and depressive symptoms on the marital couple. Last, we examined the effect of the mutual influence of parenting stress and depressive symptoms on the child’s internalizing and externalizing problems. To this end, we analyzed the data of 1,358 participants in Years 5–7 (2012–2014) from the Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC), employing the actor-partner independence model and structural equation modeling. The results indicated that parenting stress was associated with depressive symptoms in both parents, which then exerted an effect on their children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Furthermore, parents’ depressive symptoms mediated a positive relationship between parenting stress and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Our findings demonstrate the importance of the mutual influence of both parents’ stress and depressive symptoms on children’s internalizing and externalizing problems.

Mental health, broad autism phenotype and psychological inflexibility in mothers of young children with autism spectrum disorder in Australia: A cross-sectional survey.

Mothers of children with autism tend to have poorer mental health outcomes compared to most mothers. Lack of social support, parenting challenges and relationship difficulties are more common for mothers of children with autism and can all affect maternal mental health. Mothers of children with autism are also more likely to have some autistic features, called the broad autism phenotype, that can contribute to poorer mental health; however, how these factors relate to one another are unclear. This study found that mothers who were less flexible in their thinking and behaviour and had more difficult parenting experiences tended to have poorer mental health. Mothers with more autistic features were less flexible in their thinking and behaviour, which, in turn, was linked to greater symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress. Mothers with greater autistic features also reported more difficult parenting experiences, which was in turn linked with greater symptoms of anxiety and depression. This study suggests that supporting mothers of young children with autism to manage parenting challenges and become more flexible with their thinking and behaviour could help to improve their mental health.

Parent–Child Anxiety Symptoms in Emerging Adults: Moderation by Gender and Religiosity

Although research has indicated that parent and child anxiety are connected, religiosity may serve as a protective factor and help weaken this connection. The current study asked 1,002 emerging adults (67.7% female) to report on their mothers’ and fathers’ anxiety symptoms and their own anxiety symptoms and religiosity. Structural equation modeling indicated that personal religiosity served as a moderator between the perceived anxiety symptoms of mothers and fathers and emerging adult anxiety symptoms for daughters but not sons. Participant gender also suggested a 3-way interaction among variables as the interactions occurred for daughters but not sons. Additionally, parent gender suggested a 3-way interaction, given that the results indicated that for emerging adult daughters, the interaction was stronger for mothers than fathers. Thus, emerging adult religiosity as well as parent and child gender may be contributing factors to better understanding of how offspring anxiety relates to that of their parents.

Depression and anxiety in mothers of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Background Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a childhood neurodevelopmental illness. It disrupts not only the child but also the parents. Dealing with children with ADHD can have unpleasant effects on close relatives, particularly mothers. Objective To detect depression and anxiety between mothers of children with ADHD. Patients and methods This cross-sectional study was conducted on 100 mothers of children with ADHD. Interviews were conducted with mothers and their children. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales and Conner's Parent Rating Scale-revised, long version, were applied to all children. Participating mothers underwent Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and Beck's Depression Inventory − II scale, and their socioeconomic level was measured by the El-Gilany scale for measuring family socioeconomic status. Results This study showed the presence of depression in 48% of mothers of children with ADHD. Presence of anxiety was seen in 64% of mothers of children with ADHD. There is a positive correlation between depression and anxiety of mothers and severity of symptoms of ADHD in their child. In our study, there is no relation between depression and anxiety of mothers and their child's type of ADHD. Conclusion Our study determined the presence of depression and anxiety symptoms in mothers of children with ADHD. The severity of depression and anxiety in mothers increases if the symptoms (attention deficit-hyperactivity-impulsivity) increase in their children.

Acute and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Mothers and Fathers Following Childbirth: A Prospective Cohort Study.

IntroductionUp to 30% of women view their childbirth as traumatic. This experience can lead to acute stress disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder. The negative impact of maternal post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth reaches beyond the mother, potentially affecting her child's development and the couple's relationship. Research on paternal post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth is scarce. Acute stress disorder is suggested to be an important predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder in mothers, but little is known about paternal acute stress disorder following childbirth. Furthermore, there is limited information about the comparison or relation of acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth between parents.Aim[1] To compare the prevalence rates and severity of acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms between parents following childbirth by taking anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as obstetric variables and previous traumatic events into account and [2] To determine if acute stress disorder is a predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder.MethodA prospective population-based design was used. N = 647 participants were recruited from future parents who attended appointments at the Obstetrics and Gynecology unit at a Swiss university hospital. Self-report questionnaires were used: Post-traumatic Diagnostic Scale in the third trimester of pregnancy (T1) and 1 month post-partum (T3), Acute Stress Disorder Scale at 1 week post-partum (T2), and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale at all time points. Obstetric and neonatal variables were retrieved from hospital records.ResultsAt T2, 8.9% of mothers and 4.4% of fathers presented symptoms of acute stress disorder. At T3, 20.7% of mothers and 7.2% of fathers had symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Acute stress disorder was a predictor of post-partum post-traumatic stress disorder (Odds ratio: 8.6, IC 95% [1.85; 40.42]). Depression symptoms was a significant confounder in the prediction of post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth, but not anxiety or previous perinatal loss.ConclusionLittle is known about parental differences in acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms following childbirth. Results indicate that both parents may suffer from acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms after childbirth and that acute stress disorder is a predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder after childbirth for both parents. Sensitization of maternity staff to these results may assist in earlier identification of and appropriate treatment for at-risk parents.

Parental role alteration strongly influences depressive symptoms in mothers of preoperative infants with congenital heart disease

BackgroundMothers of infants with congenital heart disease are at risk for depression. ObjectivesThis study explored the influence on maternal depressive symptoms of several known factors for mothers in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit, including perceived stressors, attachment, and anxiety. MethodsThis study was a secondary analysis of 30 mothers of infants awaiting cardiac surgery. Linear regressions were calculated to determine the relationships between perceived stressors, maternal attachment, anxiety, and maternal depressive symptoms. ResultsNearly half of mothers reported depressive symptoms above the measure cut-off score, indicating they were at risk for likely clinical depression. Subscales of perceived stress explained 61.7% of the variance in depressive symptoms (F = 11.815, p<0.0001) with parental role alteration subscale as the strongest predictor (standardized beta=0.694, p = 0.03). ConclusionsFindings underscore the importance of mental health screening and instituting nursing practices to enhance parental role for mothers of infants awaiting cardiac surgery.

Effects of COVID-19 Epidemic Lockdown on Postpartum Depressive Symptoms in a Sample of Italian Mothers.

The extraordinary health emergency of the COVID-19 pandemic represents a new challenge for mental health researchers and clinical practitioners. The related containment measures may be a risk factor for psychological distress and mood disorders, especially in at-risk populations. This study aims to explore the impact of COVID-19 on postpartum depressive symptoms in mothers with children below 1 year of age. An online questionnaire survey was therefore conducted in Italy between May and June 2020. The survey consisted of several self-administered questionnaires: besides some ad-hoc questionnaires, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), the Scale of Perceived Social Support (SPSS) and the Maternity Social Support Scale (MSSS) were used. Two hundred forty-three Italian women were included in the study. The prevalence of postpartum depression symptomatology among mothers was 44%, as measured through the EPDS (cut-off >12). Women who spent the isolation in northern Italy adopted maladaptive coping strategies significantly more than women living in areas at lower risk. The analysis highlighted a significant difference between the group that was not directly affected by the virus and women who have had a direct or indirect contact with it. Besides situational factors specific to the pandemic, the results show that there are some risk factors tied to the personal history of the mother (e.g., having had a previous abortion). These data should inform and enlighten future protocols of intervention.

Depressive symptoms among mothers of children with psoriasis-A case-control study.

Childhood psoriasis is known to have a negative impact on caregivers' quality of life (QoL). The prevalence of depression among caregivers of children with psoriasis has not been fully studied. The aim of this case-control study was to evaluate the prevalence of depressive symptoms in mothers of children with psoriasis. Sixty mothers caring for a child with psoriasis were identified. The control group consisted of 60 age- and gender-matched children with nevi and their mothers. The severity of psoriasis was analyzed using Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI). The QoL of each child was evaluated using Children's Dermatology Life Quality Index (CDLQI) or Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI). Mothers completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). BDI score of ≥10 points was considered to be indicative of depression. Mothers of children suffering from psoriasis achieved significantly higher scores in the BDI questionnaire when compared to mothers in the control group (7.3±6.91 points vs 2.75±3.46 points, respectively; P=.000005). More mothers in the study group demonstrated depressive features on BDI compared to controls (n=14 psoriasis and n=3 control, respectively; P=.009). BDI score did not correlate with any of the child's scores including severity of the child's psoriasis and the impact of psoriasis on child's QoL. The current study demonstrates high levels of depressive symptoms among mothers of children with psoriasis. Presence of emotional disturbances among caregivers should be taken into consideration in the integrated approach to childhood dermatological disorders.

Person-centered profiles of parasympathetic physiology, anxiety symptoms, and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers of young children.

Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) is a biomarker of mental health, but RSA-symptom relations in parents of young children are understudied. We examined how anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, resting RSA, and RSA reactivity during challenging parent-child interactions clustered in a community sample of mothers (N=126) and fathers (N=87) of 3-year-olds and whether profiles predicted child emotional and behavioral dysregulation at age 4. Mothers fit four profiles (Typical, Mild Risk, Moderate Risk/Withdrawal, and Moderate Risk/Augmentation), suggesting that RSA reactivity was distinct by predominant symptom type at higher levels of risk: specifically, heightened RSA withdrawal was associated with a higher probability of anxiety symptoms and RSA augmentation was associated with a higher probability of depressive symptoms. Fathers fit three profiles (Typical, Mild Risk, and Moderate Risk) where Moderate Risk was characterized by RSA augmentation and a higher probability of both anxiety and depressive symptoms. Mild risk profiles showed heightened resting RSA for mothers and fathers but no differences in RSA reactivity. Both mild and moderate risk profiles predicted higher child dysregulation 1year later compared to typical profiles. Findings offer preliminary evidence that parasympathetic physiology covaries with symptoms differently for mothers and fathers and that parental profiles of physiology and symptoms inform children's developmental psychopathology.

Postpartum depression in mothers and fathers: a structural equation model

BackgroundPost-partum depression (PPD) is a growing mental health concern worldwide. There is little evidence in the Chinese context of the relationship between paternal PPD and maternal PPD. Given the growing global concerns this relationship requires further exploration.MethodsA survey was conducted with 950 total couples from March 2017 to December 2018. The study was conducted using a standardized questionnaire that included basic demographic information, information on the relationship between the mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, marital satisfaction (both maternal and paternal), and PPD symptoms. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analysis was used to explore the underlying mechanism for PPD symptoms in mothers and fathers.ResultsIn 4.4% of the couples both the wife and the husband showed depressive symptoms. Maternal marital satisfaction showed a significant mediating effect on paternal PPD (B = -0.114, p < 0.01), and there was a direct effect of maternal PPD on paternal PPD (B = 0.31, p < 0.001).ConclusionsThis is the first study to investigate the possible correlation between maternal PPD, mother-in-law and daughter-in-law relationship satisfaction, maternal marital satisfaction, paternal marital satisfaction, and paternal PPD. It is important for future PPD interventions to target both maternal and paternal mental health, as well as the mechanisms identified that can lead to PPD.

From the Mother to the Child: The Intergenerational Transmission of Experiences of Violence in Mother-Child Dyads Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence in Cameroon.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a widespread social problem with serious consequences for the health of both women and their children. However, little is known about the combined effect of maternal childhood abuse and current exposure to IPV with respect to the psychopathological symptoms of the mother-child dyad. In a Cameroonian cultural setting, where IPV affects more than half of women, we aimed to better understand how mother's childhood abuse and current IPV co-occur to lead to psychopathological symptoms in the mother-child dyad. With the help of a non-governmental organization in Cameroon, we recruited 49 mother-child dyads exposed to IPV, along with 25 mother-child dyads who had not been exposed, and who functioned as a control group. All mothers completed a set of questionnaires, including the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale to assess IPV; the Child Trauma Questionnaire to examine their childhood trauma; the Child Behavior Checklist to assess their children's psychopathological traits; the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; and the Symptom Checklist. We found that physical abuse experienced by mothers during childhood was associated with IPV in adulthood, and specifically sexual abuse, p = .001. In addition, we found that the accumulation of maternal childhood abuse and current IPV was related to anxiety and depression symptoms in mothers, all R2 ≥ .18, all ps ≤ .015, as well as to externalized symptoms in children, all R2 ≥ .27, all ps ≤ .017. Our results suggest the intergenerational transmission of experiences of childhood abuse and current IPV, which calls for the development of interventions and care strategies for the mother-child dyad.

The effect of an emotional support training program on acute stress disorder among mothers of preterm infants hospitalized in neonatal intensive care units

Many mothers experience acute stress disorder after hospitalized their infant in NICU. The objective was to assess the impact of an emotional support training program on acute stress disorder level among mothers of preterm infants admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit. A pretest-posttest experimental randomized controlled trial design using the Stanford Acute Stress Reaction Questionnaire was used on 48 mothers (24 each in two groups) of premature infants in a level III NICU in the largest public teaching hospital in Amman at Jordan. The results revealed statistically significant differences between the interventional and control group for mean post intervention scores [t (23) = 6.07, p = .01], with mean scores of 18.53 (9.33) and, 25.588 (4.99) respectively. Hence, the emotional support training programs effectively reduce acute stress disorder symptoms in mothers of premature infants in neonatal intensive care units.

Relationship between parenting measures and parents and child psychopathological symptoms: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundIncreasing evidence suggests a complex role of family influences, such as the exposure to parent psychopathology through parenting behavior, in parent-to-child psychopathology transmission. Parenting behaviour could represent a relevant target of psychoeducative intervention. Given these premises, we aimed to evaluate homotypic and heterotypic relationships between parent and child psychopathology, mediated by parenting behaviours, taking into account the constructs of parent and offspring internalizing and externalizing psychopathology.MethodsInternalizing and externalizing symptoms in 272 clinically-referred subjects (mean age = 14.5 ± 2.3; F = 23.5%) and their parents (mothers n = 272, fathers n = 242) were assessed through the Child Behavior Checklist and the Adult Self Report; four areas of parenting behaviours were investigated through the Family Life Questionnaire. Multiple mediation models were built, considering mother and father psychopathology scales as independent variables, parenting measures and family functioning as mediators (Affirmation, Rules, Discipline and Special Allowances), child psychopathology scales as dependent variables and demographic variables as covariates.ResultsRegression models showed a significant effect of maternal internalizing symptomatology on child externalizing behavioral problems; high levels of maternal pathology predicted high levels of children’s psychopathology. A total mediating effect of parenting measures was found: high levels of internalizing symptoms in mothers predicted low levels of affirmation, which in turn predicted high levels of externalizing psychopathology in children.ConclusionsOur study results confirmed the existence of interdependent links between mothers’ psychiatric symptomatology, parenting behaviour and offspring outcomes, specifically in an Italian context. On a clinical and rehabilitation basis, this work offers suggestions about parenting practices, specifically maternal, involved in the maintenance of child psychopathology.

Depressive symptoms, parental stress, and attachment style in mothers and fathers two and a half years after childbirth: Are fathers as affected as mothers?

The study aimed to determine the prevalence of depressive symptoms and whether parental stress and attachment style affected depression in mothers and fathers two and a half years after the birth of a child. The parents completed several questionnaires including the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, the Swedish Parenthood Stress Questionnaire and the Relationship Questionnaire. The prevalence rate of depressive symptoms in mothers was 14.9%, while for fathers it was 11.5%. Differences between the parents identified as depressed and those without depressive symptoms were also analysed. There were no significant differences between depressed and non-depressed parents on the secure, avoidant and fearful attachment styles. However, there was a significant difference between groups on the preoccupied subscale. The final aim was to calculate if attachment style contributed to the level of depression while accounting for the impact of parental stress. Parental stress (incompetence, social isolation and spouse relationship problems) was the best predictor for mothers’ depressive symptoms, while parental stress (social isolation and health) and the preoccupied attachment style were the best predictors for such symptoms in fathers. The findings indicated that parental stress and depressive symptoms are closely related and can explain the difficulties parents face.

Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Mothers and Fathers of Very Preterm Infants Over the First 2 Years.

Mothers and fathers of infants born very preterm (VPT) are at increased risk for posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSSs), such as reexperiencing the event, persistent avoidance, or increased reactivity within the early months, compared with parents of term-born infants. This study aimed to assess PTSSs in mothers and fathers of VPT infants over the first 2 years of life, including changes over time and relationship with medical and social risk. A longitudinal, prospective, cohort study of PTSSs in parents of VPT infants. PTSS was assessed at term equivalent age (TEA) and 12 and 24 months using the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist Specific Version. Participants were 105 parents of 131 infants born at <30 weeks' gestational age with PTSS data at least once (92 mothers and/or 75 fathers). At TEA and 12 and 24 months, elevated PTSSs were reported by 36%, 22%, and 18% of mothers and 35%, 25%, and 19% of fathers, respectively. The mean symptom scores and rates of elevated PTSSs declined over time: mean (95% confidence interval) change in PTSS score per year = -1.52 (-2.33 to -0.72, p < 0.001). There was little evidence for difference in these patterns for mothers or fathers (interaction p = 0.46 [total score] and 0.71 [elevated category]) or that medical and social risk were associated with PTSSs over time. Although the rates of parents experiencing clinically elevated symptoms declined over time, it is concerning that one-fifth of mothers and fathers reported elevated PTSSs at 24 months. Further research is needed to identify factors associated with increased risk and resilience for PTSSs after VPT birth in mothers and fathers to provide effective and appropriate support.