Symptomatic Sexually Transmitted Infections Research Articles

Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections and associated risk factors among female sex workers in Guinea-Bissau

ObjectiveTo estimate the prevalence of the curable sexually transmitted infections (STIs) Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma genitalium, Trichomonas vaginalis and Treponema pallidum, to identify associated risk factors and to assess...

Sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A retrospective cohort study.

There is a high prevalence and incidence rate of asymptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STIs) during pregnancy in adolescent girls and young women in Africa. The association between STIs and pregnancy outcomes in a hyperepidemic HIV setting has not been well described. Pregnant women, HIV-1 negative and <28 weeks' gestation at three primary health clinics in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa were enrolled from February 2017 to March 2018. Vaginal swabs collected at the first and later antenatal visits were stored and retrospectively tested for HSV-2, Trichomonas vaginalis, Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae at the end of the study. The association between STIs detected at first and later antenatal visits and pregnancy outcome was assessed using multivariable logistic regression models adjusted for maternal age and treatment received for symptomatic STIs. Testing positive Mycoplasma genitalium at the first antenatal visit was significantly associated with low birth weight (odds ratio [OR] 5.22; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.10-15.98). Testing positive for T. vaginalis at the repeat visit was significantly associated with preterm births (OR 2.37; 95% CI: 1.11-5.03), low birth weight (OR 2.56; 1.16-5.63) and a composite adverse pregnancy outcome (OR 2.11; 95% CI: 1.09-4.08). Testing positive for HSV-2 at the repeat visit was also likely associated with experiencing a preterm birth or any adverse pregnancy outcome (OR 3.39; 95% CI: 0.86-13.3) (P = 0.096). Among predominantly asymptomatic STIs, M. genitalium detected at baseline visit was significantly associated with low birth weight, while T. vaginalis detected at the repeat visit in later pregnancy was significantly associated with preterm birth. Further research is warranted to study the impact of etiological testing of STIs at more than one antenatal visit and empirical treatment on pregnancy outcomes.

Physical examination for the detection of sexually transmitted infections among transgender women and travestis in Brazil: acceptability and associated factors.

This study aimed to determine the acceptability and factors associated with uptake of a physical examination for the detection of symptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STIs) by transgender women and travestis in Brazil. TransOdara was a multi-centric, cross-sectional STI prevalence study conducted among transgender women and travestis in five capital cities (Campo Grande, Manaus, Porto Alegre, Salvador and São Paulo) representing all Brazilian regions, between December 2019 and July 2021. A total of 1,317 self-identified transgender women and travestis aged ≥18 years were recruited using respondent-driven sampling and responded to a standard questionnaire. A medical consultation was offered including a physical examination and collection of samples from multiple sites to detect various STIs. Factors associated with uptake were investigated by reviewing demographic characteristics of participants who gave permission for physical examination (general, genital, and anorectal). Most participants (65.4%, 95% confidence interval - 95%CI 62.7-68.0) gave permission for a general examination (including oropharyngeal), with fewer permitting genital (42.3%, 95%CI 39.6-46.0) or anorectal (42.1%, 95%CI 39.4-44.9) examinations. Overall, 34.4% (95%CI 31.8-37.0) of participants refused all examinations. Participants with STI symptoms were significantly more likely to give permission for full examination than asymptomatic participants (64.3 vs. 37.4%, adjusted odds ratio - AOR=3.6, 95%CI 2.4-5.5). Other factors significantly associated with uptake of a full examination in multivariate analysis included age (AOR=1.5 for ≥25 years), religion (AOR=1.7 for Afro-Brazilian, AOR=1.9 for other religions compared to no religion), and education (AOR=2.0 for higher-level). In the context of STI management, this study found limited acceptance of anogenital examinations among transgender women and travestis, with higher acceptance among those with STI symptoms.

Comparing the Integration of Syndromic versus Etiological Management of Sexually Transmitted Infections Into HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Services for Adolescent Girls and Young Women, in South Africa

South Africa has a high incidence of human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), particularly among adolescent girls and young women. National and global guidelines recommend varied strategies for integrating STI and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) services. PurposeThis paper describes the implementation of a syndromic compared to an etiological approach to STI integration within PrEP services in South Africa. MethodsWe analysed program data from eight fixed and four mobile clinics to describe a cascade of STI care and integration of syndromic management among clients accessing PrEP services. Diagnostic testing was conducted in a subset of clients to determine the prevalence of STIs and estimate the burden of disease missed using a syndromic approach. ResultsBetween December 2018 and December 2021, 22,505 clients sought services and a high proportion (92.9%) was screened for STI symptoms. Of these, 9% of females and 3% of males had symptoms and 89.5% had recorded treatment. In a subset of PrEP clients (406 females, 70 males) screened through laboratory testing, chlamydia was identified in 25.7% of female and 20.0% of male samples, gonorrhea in 14.1% of female and 18.6% of male samples, and syphilis in 2.3% of female and 1.4% of male samples. Highest prevalence was found among females aged 18–20 years. DiscussionSyndromic STI screening and management can be integrated into routine PrEP service delivery and can identify symptomatic STIs, but misses asymptomatic infections. PrEP clients have a high prevalence of treatable STIs. Etiologic approaches can identify more infections than syndromic screening, but cheap point-of-care tests are needed.

Brazilian Clinical Practice Guidelines for Sexually Transmitted Infections That Cause Urethral Discharge: Assessment According to the AGREE II and Critical Analysis Based on the WHO Recommendations.

Sexually transmitted infections (STI) can have severe consequences. In Brazil, case management is recommended by the Clinical Protocol and Therapeutical Guidelines for Comprehensive Care for People with STIs (PCDT-IST). This study assessed the quality of PCDT-IST (2021) and reviewed the main recommendations for the management of STI that cause urethral discharge compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) STI Guidelines. The PCDT-IST (2021) quality was independently assessed by 4 appraisers using the Appraisal of Guidelines Research and Evaluation instrument, version II (AGREE II). The PCDT-IST (2021) and the WHO Guidelines for the Management of Symptomatic STI (2021) were compared considering 14 different assessment domains. The PCDT-IST (2021) scores in the AGREE II domains were: Rigor of Development (58%), Applicability (35%), Editorial Independence (38%), Scope and Purpose (78%), Stakeholder Involvement (74%), and Clarity and Presentation (82%). The overall score was 67%, and all appraisers recommended the Brazilian guideline. Regarding the PCDT-IST (2021) and the WHO STI Guidelines (2021) comparation, 10 domains would be relevant for further reviewing the Brazilian recommendations: Diagnostic tests; Etiological approach; Treatment for recurrent urethral discharge; Treatment for urethritis without etiological agent identification; Treatment for gonococcal urethritis; Treatment for chlamydial urethritis; Retreatment for gonococcal infections; Treatment for Mycoplasma genitalium urethritis; Treatment for Trichomonas vaginalis urethritis; 10. Flowcharts. The PCDT-IST (2021) has a reasonable degree of quality. However, the domains of Applicability, Rigor of Development, and Editorial Independence must be better ensured. The guidelines comparison will help to select key topics that should be addressed with priority in the following national STI guidelines updates.

Seroconversion rate of SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies and dating behaviour in HIV-PrEP users in a German metropolis during the COVID-19 pandemic.

At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, when mortality was high, social distance was the only option to prevent transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and prohibit uncontrolled spreading. As the impact of social distancing on sexual behavior was unclear, we aimed to assess the influence of sexual risk behavior on SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion in HIV pre-exposition prophylaxis (PrEP) users after declaration of the pandemic. Prospective study on SARS-CoV-2 IgG-antibody seroconversion rate over time in men having sex with men (MSM) using PrEP at a single tertiary university hospital in Munich, Germany, during quarterly (Q) routine HIV-PrEP visits over 1year per participant (May 2020 - September 2021). Seroconversion was defined as at least one positive anti-nucleocapsid (anti-N) SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody test as surrogate for past infection. In addition, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), personal estimated risk behavior and sexual contacts were assessed. Seroconversion rate during the full observation period was 7.3% (9/124 subjects) by September 2021. Percentage of subjects with symptomatic STIs (T. pallidum, N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis and M. genitalium) was 18.7% in Q3-20, 8.1% in Q4-20, 11.1% in Q1-21, 11.6% in Q2-21 and 9.5% in Q3-21. Perception of subjective threat of SARS-CoV-2 infection and adequacy of preventive measures decreased during the observation period. However, self-reported sex behavior remained stable during the observation period. Our cohort showed low proportion of PrEP-users with anti-N IgG by September 2021, comparable to the local incidence. Sexual behavior in this cohort did not change, despite local recommendations for social distancing.

Factors associated with partner notification intentions among symptomatic sexually transmitted infection service attendees in South Africa.

In South Africa (SA), a client-initiated partner notification (PN) approach is implemented for the management of sexual partners of patients presenting with sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or STI syndromes. To explore the demographic, sexual behavioural and clinical characteristics associated with PN intentions among symptomatic STI service attendees at sentinel primary healthcare facilities in three SA provinces. We analysed cross-sectional data obtained from 1 293 adults enrolled into STI aetiological surveillance during 2019 - 2020 in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape provinces. Self-reported sexual practices, PN intentions and clinical data were collected using nurse-administrated questionnaires. We assessed gender-stratified factors associated with the index case's willingness to notify their sexual partners of their STI syndrome diagnosis. Univariable and multivariable Poisson regression models with robust error variance were used to determine factors associated with gender-stratified PN intentions. The enrolled participants comprised 887 male (68.6%) and 406 female (31.4%) STI clients. Self-reported PN intentions were higher among women than men (83.5% v. 64.4%; p<0.001). Multivariable analyses revealed that casual sex partnerships during the preceding 3-month period and enrolment at the KwaZulu-Natal site were independent barriers to PN intent among male participants. For females, enrolment at the Gauteng site was independently associated with lower PN intentions, while presenting with genital ulcer syndrome was a motivator towards PN intent. The primary reasons cited for non-disclosure across both genders were casual sexual encounters, followed by geographically distant partnerships and fear of disclosure. We show that demographic and behavioural characteristics, as well as relationship dynamics, may influence the PN intentions of STI service attendees in SA. Alternative PN strategies should be considered, based on the reported barriers, to increase overall STI notification, strengthen partner management and ultimately reduce STI incidence.

Injection drug use and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men: A retrospective cohort study at an HIV/AIDS referral hospital in Tokyo, 2013-2022.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) who use injection drugs (MSM-IDU) are at high risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), but the long-term incidence is unclear. We conducted a single-centre retrospective cohort study using the clinical records of non-haemophilia men with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) who visited the Institute of Medical Science, the University of Tokyo (IMSUT) Hospital, located in Tokyo, Japan, from 2013 to 2022. We analysed 575 patients including 62 heterosexual males and 513 MSM patients, of whom 6.8% (35/513) were injection drug use (IDU). Compared to non-IDU MSM, MSM-IDU had a higher incidence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) (44.8 vs 3.5 /1,000 person-years (PY); incidence rate ratio (IRR) [95% confidence interval (95% CI)], 12.8 [5.5-29.3], p<0.001) and syphilis (113.8 vs 53.3 /1,000 PY; IRR, 2.1 [1.4-3.1], p<0.001). The incidence of other symptomatic STIs (amoebiasis, chlamydia, and gonorrhoea infections) was <4/1,000 PY. In multivariable Poisson regression analysis, HCV incidence was associated with MSM (IRR, 1.8×106 [9.9×105-3.4×106], p<0.001), IDU (IRR, 10.1 [4.0-25.6], p<0.001), and syphilis infection during the study period (IRR, 25.0 [1.2-518.3]/time/year, p<0.001). Among men with HIV, the prevalence of IDU in MSM and the long-term incidence of STIs in MSM-IDU were high. IDU and sexual contact are important modes of transmission of HCV among HIV-infected MSM in Tokyo.

Clinico-epidemiological profile of patients with sexually transmitted infections at a tertiary care centre

Background: Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are one of the most disastrous events of human health causing huge psychosocial and economic morbidity in young and sexually active adults. Population explosion, migration from rural to urban areas, commercial sex and lack of awareness has all led to enormous spread of STIs in the community. Their epidemiological profile varies from country to country and from one region to another within a country. This study highlights the pattern of STIs in patients as seen at our hospital for a period of 2 years. Aim: To study the clinico-epidemiological profile of the patients with Sexually Transmitted Infections. Methods and Material: This study was conducted at Dept. of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprosy at PDU Govt. Medical College and Hospital, Rajkot, Gujarat. This included 300 consecutive symptomatic STI patients presenting to the clinic between November-2013 to October-2015. Diseases were diagnosed on the basis of detailed history, clinical examination and relevant investigations. Results: Most common age group affected was 21-30 years (39%). Incidence of STI was high among Males (75.33%). Married persons were more commonly affected (55.33%) as compared to unmarried. Herpes Genitalis (42.33%) was the most common STI followed by Genital warts (27.33%), Genital Molluscum Contagiosum (16.67%). The overall sero-prevalence of HIV among the STI patients was-19% and Herpes Genitalis was most commonly associated with sero-positivity.Conclusion: Study concluded that bacterial STIs are having declining trend and viral STIs are having upward trend. The persistent and recurrent nature of viral infections is responsible for their increasing trend in the current STI scenario.

Why sexual health clinics are important in the 2020s.

To make services more accessible, acceptable and affordable, sexual health service delivery models have embraced innovation, technology, outreach and decentralisation. In particular, some routine high-volume services, like asymptomatic testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), can be delivered in general practice, online or in non-clinical settings. On the surface, sexual health clinics, like hospitals or other primary care clinics, might appear to be operating on a model that has not changed significantly in recent times. However, globally sexual healthcare needs are rising both in volume and complexity, not all of which can be adequately met through decentralised care. Sexual health clinics themselves are the site of considerable innovation. The importance of sexual health clinics in the diagnosis and treatment of symptomatic STIs is likely to increase with the increasing burden of disease, the complexity of treatment guidelines and the emergence of new infections. Services essential to patient health such as immediate or complex clinical care, partner notification and safeguarding, and activities essential to the health system like research, training and supervision require expertise to be located where it can be accessed and maintained at reasonable cost. We do not know whether increasing some services outside existing models can safely compensate for reducing other services inside them.

Pre and post treatment symptomatic assessment of patient with STI receiving syndromic treatment

Introduction: The aim of this study is to accesses the use of the syndromic approach towards managing sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in north western part of India and to make recommendations about the strengths and weakness of syndromic management algorithms and to determine if evidence supports its continued use. Materials and Methods: Total of 412 patients diagnosed as STI based on clinical and physical examination were treated based on syndromic approach and finally 240 patients were recruited in the study. Diagnosis was made based on signs, symptoms and examination. Every symptomatic patient suggestive of STI was managed on the basis of algorithms of the syndrome approach and patients were again followed up after completion of treatment for assessment of clinical improvement/deterioration of signs and symptoms. Results: Vaginal discharge (48.5%, 194 out of 400) followed by lower abdominal pain (46.75%, 187 out of 400) were the most common complaints. On cervico-vaginal smear cytology, 31.70%, 12.19% and 4.87% tested positive for bacterial vaginosis, leptothrix and candidiasis respectively. Syndromic approach for patients of STIs with symptoms of pain abdomen, white discharge P/V and itching P/V are statistically highly significant (Chi-Square Value~86.44 and its p value 0.05). Conclusion: Syndromic management may be an effective method for clinical management of symptomatic STIs in low resource setting as illustrated in our finding. But further research is needed to determine the cost-benefit ratio of introducing laboratory-based screening into a comprehensive public health program for the control of commonly seen STIs in populations at risk for STIs. Keyword: Diagnosis, Laboratory-based, Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), Syndromic approach, Treatment, World Health Organisation (WHO).

Differences in sexually transmitted infection risk comparing preexposure prophylaxis users and propensity score matched historical controls in a clinic setting.

The aim of this study was to determine whether MSM using preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) are at a higher risk of bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs) than MSM not using PrEP. Secondary analysis of longitudinal STI data obtained from MSM attending an STD Clinic in Seattle, Washington, USA, October 2011-September 2017. We identified patients obtaining PrEP through the STD Clinic, and used propensity score matching to select a historical group of similar patients not using PrEP for comparison. We linked patient data with STI surveillance data to compare the incidence of chlamydia, gonorrhoea and early syphilis, and time to first symptomatic STI among PrEP users and nonusers. Three hundred and sixty-five PrEP users who picked up prescriptions and returned for follow-up and 730 propensity score matched nonusers were included in the analysis. Adjusted incidence rate ratios (aIRRs) for chlamydia, gonorrhoea and early syphilis were 3.2 [95% confidence interval (95% CI): 1.9-5.3], 2.8 (95% CI: 1.7-4.6) and 2.9 (95% CI: 1.5 - 5.6), respectively, comparing PrEP users to nonusers. Time to first symptomatic STI was shorter among PrEP users (120 days, 95% CI: 77 - 171) than among nonusers (185 days, 95% CI: 163-256). Among MSM on PrEP, we observed a higher incidence of STIs and faster time to first symptomatic STI than MSM not using PrEP. PrEP may be a contributing factor in increasing STI rates among MSM.

Symptomatic Sexually Transmitted Infections in Brazil's Emerging Rural Populations

We used a cross-sectional study in 2011 to estimate prevalence and risk behaviors for self-reported symptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STI) in rural settlers in Midwestern Brazil. There were 353 individuals recruited who had been living in the settlement for more than 6months. The endpoint variable was having reported vaginal discharge, urethral discharge, genital ulcers, or anogenital warts in the previous 12months. Univariate and multivariate Poisson regressions were performed to identify STI correlates. A prevalence of 22.4% of self-reported symptomatic STI was found. Being female, homosexual, and/or having lived in camps were associated with self-report of STI (p<.05). The high prevalence of self-reported symptomatic STI among settlers suggested that this was a key population in the epidemiology of STI in rural regions and demands the strengthening of health promotion actions in this vulnerable population, especially for women, homosexuals, and those who previously lived in camps.

Symptomatic Vaginal Discharge Is a Poor Predictor of Sexually Transmitted Infections and Genital Tract Inflammation in High-Risk Women in South Africa

Diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is a public health priority, particularly in regions where the incidence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is high. In most developing countries, STIs are managed syndromically. We assessed the adequacy of syndromic diagnosis of STIs, compared with laboratory diagnosis of STIs, and evaluated the association between STI diagnosis and the risk of HIV acquisition in a cohort of high-risk women. HIV-uninfected high-risk women (n = 242) were followed for 24 months. Symptoms of STIs were recorded, and laboratory diagnosis of common STI pathogens was conducted every 6 months. Forty-two cytokines were measured by Luminex in cervicovaginal lavage specimens at enrollment. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection was evaluated monthly. Only 12.3% of women (25 of 204) who had a laboratory-diagnosed, discharge-causing STI had clinically evident discharge. Vaginal discharge was thus a poor predictor of laboratory-diagnosed STIs (sensitivity, 12.3%; specificity, 93.8%). Cervicovaginal cytokine concentrations did not differ between women with asymptomatic STIs and those with symptomatic STIs and were elevated in women with asymptomatic STIs, compared with women with no STIs or bacterial vaginosis. Although laboratory-diagnosed STIs were associated with increased risk of HIV infection (hazard ratio, 3.3 [95% confidence interval, 1.5-7.2)], clinical symptoms were not. Syndromic STI diagnosis dependent on vaginal discharge was poorly predictive of laboratory-diagnosed STI. Laboratory-diagnosed STIs were associated with increased susceptibility to HIV acquisition, while vaginal discharge was not.

Effect of single session counselling on partner referral for sexually transmitted infections management in Bangladesh

ObjectivesThis study evaluated the role of single session counselling on partner referral among index cases diagnosed as having sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in Bangladesh.MethodsA quasirandomised trial was conducted in 1339...

Syndromic Management and STI Control in Urban Peru

BackgroundSyndromic management is an inexpensive and effective method for the treatment of symptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STIs), but its effectiveness as a method of STI control in at-risk populations is questionable. We sought to determine the potential utility of syndromic management as a public health strategy to control STI transmission in high-risk populations in urban Peru.MethodologyWe surveyed 3,285 at-risk men and women from three Peruvian cities from 2003–05. Participants were asked about the presence of genital ulcers, discharge, or dysuria in the preceding six months. Participants reporting symptoms were asked about subsequent health-seeking and partner notification behavior. Urine and vaginal swab samples were tested for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis by nucleic acid testing. Serum was tested for syphilis and Herpes Simplex Virus-Type 2 antibodies.FindingsRecent urogenital discharge or dysuria was reported by 42.1% of participants with gonorrhea or chlamydia versus 28.3% of participants without infection. Genital ulceration was reported by 6.2% of participants with, and 7.4% of participants without, recent syphilis. Many participants reporting symptoms continued sexual activity while symptomatic, and approximately half of all symptomatic participants sought treatment. The positive and negative predictive values of urogenital discharge or genital ulcer disease in detecting STIs that are common in the study population were 14.4% and 81.5% for chlamydia in women and 8.3% and 89.5% for syphilis among gay-identified men.ConclusionsIn our study, STIs among high-risk men and women in urban Peru were frequently asymptomatic and symptomatic participants often remained sexually active without seeking treatment. Additional research is needed to assess the costs and benefits of targeted, laboratory-based STI screening as part of a comprehensive STI control program in developing countries.

Plasma Antibodies against Trichomonas vaginalis and Subsequent Risk of Prostate Cancer

Although several previous case-control studies have investigated associations between sexually transmitted infections (STI) and prostate cancer, most have focused on gonorrhea and syphilis, two well-recognized, symptomatic STIs. Another STI of interest for prostate carcinogenesis is trichomonosis, a less well recognized and frequently asymptomatic STI with known prostate involvement. We investigated this infection in relation to incident prostate cancer in a nested case-control study within the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. Prostate cancer cases were men diagnosed with prostate cancer between the date of blood draw (1993-1995) and 2000 (n = 691). Controls were men who had had at least one prostate-specific antigen test and who were free of prostate cancer and alive at the time of case diagnosis. One control was individually matched to each case by age (n = 691). Serologic evidence of a history of trichomonosis was assessed by a recombinant Trichomonas vaginalis alpha-actinin IgG ELISA. Thirteen percent of cases and 9% of controls were seropositive for trichomonosis (adjusted odds ratio, 1.43; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-2.03). This association persisted after additional adjustment for such factors as a history of other STIs, and was strongest among men who used aspirin infrequently over the course of their lives (odds ratio, 2.05; 95% confidence interval, 1.05-4.02, P(interaction) = 0.11). Serologic evidence of a history of trichomonosis was positively associated with incident prostate cancer in this large, nested case-control study of male health professionals. As this study is the first, to our knowledge, to investigate associations between T. vaginalis serology and prostate cancer, additional studies are necessary before conclusions can be made.

Trichomoniasis in men and HIV infection: data from 2 outpatient clinics at Lilongwe Central Hospital, Malawi.

Little is known about the epidemiologic profile of trichomoniasis in men and its relationship to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Among men presenting for care for symptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in Malawi, trichomoniasis is not considered for first-line treatment. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 1187 men attending either a dermatology or STI outpatient clinic in the capital of Malawi. Men were interviewed, and the etiologies of the STIs were determined. At the STI clinic (n = 756 men), we identified 150 men (20%) with Trichomonas vaginalis infection, 358 men (47%) with HIV infection, and 335 men (44%) with Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. At the dermatology clinic (n = 431 men), we identified 54 (13%), 118 (27%), and 2 (0.5%) men, respectively. At both clinics, a lower education level and reporting never having used a condom were predictive of T. vaginalis infection. Only at the dermatology clinic was older age associated with infection, and only at the STI clinic were marital, genital ulcer disease, and HIV-infection status associated with T. vaginalis infection. At the STI clinic, urethral symptoms attributable to trichomoniasis were more severe among HIV-positive men than among HIV-negative men. Given its high prevalence and the increased risk for HIV transmission, T. vaginalis infection should be reconsidered for inclusion in the Malawi STI-treatment regimen for men.

Diagnosis and treatment of presumed STIs at Mexican pharmacies: survey results from a random sample of Mexico City pharmacy attendants

Objectives: People in developing countries often seek medical advice for common ailments from pharmacies. As one example, pharmacists routinely diagnose and treat symptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STIs). We aimed to...

Preventing HIV infection: lessons from Mwanza and Rakai

The impact of enhanced syndromic diagnosis of symptomatic sexually transmitted infections (STIs) upon the incidence of HIV infections was evaluated in 8 paired villages in Mwanza, Tanzania, over a 2-year period. Shortly thereafter, a study was conducted in Uganda's Rakai district which focused upon treating all members of 5 clusters of paired communities, including those with symptomatic and asymptomatic STIs. In August 1995, the results of the Mwanza study showed that almost 40% of HIV infections had been prevented in the communities receiving the intervention. No other HIV intervention has had such a major effect upon infection rates. In contrast, however, no HIV infections were prevented in the Rakai intervention communities. The Mwanza results could reflect the short-term impact of STD prevention and control in an immature epidemic, while the Rakai study reflects the short-term impact in a mature epidemic. The probability of transmission, the duration of infectiousness, and the number of sex partners are discussed as factors which influence the generation of an HIV epidemic in a susceptible population. The 2 studies' results indicate that STD prevention and control is feasible, effective, and affordable.