Symbiodinium Types Research Articles

The influence of irradiance on tolerance to high and low temperature stress exhibited by Symbiodinium in the coral, Pocillopora damicornis, from the high‐latitude reef of Lord Howe Island

The coral Pocillopora damicornis hosts genetically distinct and novel types of dinoflagellate symbionts at the high‐latitude site of Lord Howe Island (LHI), yet why these novel types exist at this marginal site is unknown. In this study, it was determined whether one of the novel Symbiodinium types at LHI is physiologically adapted for this high‐latitude site, where water temperatures annually range from 18°C to 26°C. Low and high short‐term thermal bleaching thresholds of the coral–symbiont partnership were measured as 14°C and 30°C. Photochemical sensitivity to temperature (15°C and 29°C) and light treatments (100% and 40% of sunlight), measured as effective quantum yield and fast induction curves, were determined over a 72‐h period. A greater effect on the photochemical reactions of LHI P. damicornis symbionts was recorded in response to a 3°C temperature increase from annual maxima than a 3°C temperature decrease from annual minima. Corals did not bleach when temperature was reduced to 15°C for 72 h; in contrast, a 92% decline in photochemical efficiency was recorded in the 29°C treatment (ΔF:F′m < 0.05), compared to 35% loss in the control (20°C). For the first time, a Pulse Efficiency Analyser fluorometer was used to assess the effect of reduced temperature on symbionts, showing a reduced rate of QA reduction, further enhanced by high light levels. This type of Symbiodinium at LHI may be specialized for cooler and more variable temperatures, so contributing to the success of corals at this marginal location.

Local endemicity and high diversity characterise high-latitude coral–Symbiodinium partnerships

Obligate symbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium) residing within the tissues of most reef invertebrates are important in determining the tolerance range of their host. Coral communities living at high latitudes experience wide fluctuations in environmental conditions and thus provide an ideal system to gain insights into the range within which the symbiotic relationship can be sustained. Further, understanding whether and how symbiont communities associated with high-latitude coral reefs are different from their tropical counterparts will provide clues to the potential of corals to cope with marginal or changing conditions. However, little is known of the host and symbiont partnerships at high latitudes. Symbiodinium diversity and specificity of high-latitude coral communities were explored using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) analysis of the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1 and ITS2) of the ribosomal DNA at Lord Howe Island (31°S; Australia), and the Kermadec Islands (29°S; New Zealand). All but one host associated with clade C Symbiodinium, the exception being a soft coral (Capnella sp.) that contained Symbiodinium B1. Besides ‘host-generalist’ Symbiodinium types C1 and C3, approximately 72% of the Symbiodinium identified were novel C types, and zonation of symbionts in relation to environmental parameters such as depth and turbidity was evident in certain host species. The high-latitude Symbiodinium communities showed little overlap and relatively high diversity compared with communities sampled on the tropical Great Barrier Reef. Although host specificity was maintained in certain species, others shared symbionts and this potential reduction of fidelity at high-latitude locations may be the result of locally challenging and highly variable environmental conditions.

Coral larvae exhibit few measurable transcriptional changes during the onset of coral-dinoflagellate endosymbiosis

The cellular mechanisms controlling the successful establishment of a stable mutualism between cnidarians and their dinoflagellate partners are largely unknown. The planula larva of the solitary Hawaiian scleractinian coral Fungia scutaria and its dinoflagellate symbiont Symbiodinium sp. type C1f represents an ideal model for studying the onset of cnidarian-dinoflagellate endosymbiosis due to the predictable availability of gametes, the ability to raise non-symbiotic larvae and establish the symbiosis experimentally, and the ability to precisely quantify infection success. The goal of this study was to identify genes differentially expressed in F. scutaria larvae during the initiation of endosymbiosis with Symbiodinium sp. C1f. Newly symbiotic larvae were compared to non-symbiotic larvae using a custom cDNA microarray. The 5184-feature array was constructed with cDNA libraries from newly symbiotic and non-symbiotic F. scutaria larvae, including 3072 features (60%) that were enriched for either state by subtractive hybridization. Our analyses revealed very few changes in the F. scutaria transcriptome as a result of infection with Symbiodinium sp. C1f, similar to other studies focused on the early stages of this symbiotic interaction. We suggest that these results may be due, in part, to an inability to detect the transcriptional signal from the small percentage of infected cells compared to uninfected cells. We discuss several other potential explanations for this result, including suggesting that certain types of Symbiodinium sp. may have evolved mechanisms to suppress or circumvent cnidarian host responses to infection.

Preliminary analyses of cultured Symbiodinium isolated from sand in the oceanic Ogasawara Islands, Japan

The dinoflagellate genus Symbiodinium is generally found in many tropical and subtropical marine invertebrates. Recently, reports have focused on free-living types. We examined free-living Symbiodinium from the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands, a group of oceanic islands south of Japan. Examining sand samples, seven of eight initial isolates were successfully cultured. Genetic analyses of 18S, 28S and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) ribosomal DNA regions reveal that one isolate cultured with only IMK was identical to clade A isolated from coral reef sand in Okinawa, and four additional isolates cultured with only IMK comprised a new clade A lineage. Additionally, two isolates cultured with IMK and soil extract were closely related to a little-known divergent lineage within clade D. Our results demonstrate some free-living Symbiodinium types may have very wide distributions, and that utilizing different culturing techniques will further discovery of unique Symbiodinium lineages from environmental samples.

The Relative Significance of Host–Habitat, Depth, and Geography on the Ecology, Endemism, and Speciation of Coral Endosymbionts in the Genus Symbiodinium

Dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium are among the most abundant and important group of eukaryotic microbes found in coral reef ecosystems. Recent analyses conducted on various host cnidarians indicated that Symbiodinium assemblages in the Caribbean Sea are genetically and ecologically diverse. In order to further characterize this diversity and identify processes important to its origins, samples from six orders of Cnidaria comprising 45 genera were collected from reef habitats around Barbados (eastern Caribbean) and from the Mesoamerican barrier reef off the coast of Belize (western Caribbean). Fingerprinting of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2 identified 62 genetically different Symbiodinium. Additional analyses of clade B Symbiodinium using microsatellite flanker sequences unequivocally characterized divergent lineages, or "species," within what was previously thought to be a single entity (B1 or B184). In contrast to the Indo-Pacific where host-generalist symbionts dominate many coral communities, partner specificity in the Caribbean is relatively high and is influenced little by the host's apparent mode of symbiont acquisition. Habitat depth (ambient light) and geographic isolation appeared to influence the bathymetric zonation and regional distribution for most of the Symbiodinium spp. characterized. Approximately 80% of Symbiodinium types were endemic to either the eastern or western Caribbean and 40-50% were distributed to compatible hosts living in shallow, high-irradiance, or deep, low-irradiance environments. These ecologic, geographic, and phylogenetic patterns indicate that most of the present Symbiodinium diversity probably originated from adaptive radiations driven by ecological specialization in separate Caribbean regions during the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods.

Responses of coral-associated bacterial communities to heat stress differ withSymbiodiniumtype on the same coral host

This study compared the effect of heat stress on coral-associated bacterial communities among juveniles of the coral, Acropora tenuis, hosting different Symbiodinium types. In comparison to a control temperature treatment (28 degrees C), we documented dramatic changes in bacterial associates on juvenile corals harbouring ITS 1 type D Symbiodinium when placed in a high (32 degrees C) temperature treatment. In particular, there was a marked increase in the number of retrieved Vibrio affiliated sequences, which coincided with a 44% decline in the photochemical efficiency of the D-juveniles. Interestingly, these Vibrio sequences affiliated most closely with the coral pathogen, Vibrio coralliilyticus, which has been implicated in some coral disease outbreaks. In contrast, A. tenuis hosting ITS 1 type C1 Symbiodinium did not exhibit major bacterial shifts in the elevated temperature treatment, indicating a more stable bacterial community during thermal stress; concomitantly a decline (10%) in photochemical efficiency was minimal for this group. D juveniles that had been exposed to moderately elevated sea temperatures (30 degrees C) in the field before being placed in the control temperature treatment displayed a decrease in the number of Vibrio affiliated sequences and bacterial profiles shifted to become more similar to profiles of corals harbouring type C1 Symbiodinium. In combination, these results demonstrate that thermal stress can result in shifts in coral-associated bacterial communities, which may lead to deteriorating coral health. The lower resilience of A. tenuis to thermal stress when harbouring Symbiodinium D highlights the importance of inter-kingdom interactions among the coral host, dinoflagellate endosymbiont and bacterial associates for coral health and resilience.

A new Symbiodinium clade (Dinophyceae) from soritid foraminifera in Hawai’i

Dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium are crucial components of coral reef ecosystems in their roles as endosymbionts of corals and other marine invertebrates. The genus Symbiodinium encompasses eight lineages (clades A–H), and multiple sub-clade types. Symbiodinium in clades A, B, C, and D are most commonly associated with metazoan hosts while clades C, D, F, G, and H with large soritid foraminifera. Recent studies have described a diversity of new Symbiodinium types within each clades, but no new clades have been reported since 2001. Here, we describe a new clade of Symbiodinium isolated from soritid foraminifera from Hawai’i.

Phenotypic Variance Predicts Symbiont Population Densities in Corals: A Modeling Approach

BackgroundWe test whether the phenotypic variance of symbionts (Symbiodinium) in corals is closely related with the capacity of corals to acclimatize to increasing seawater temperatures. Moreover, we assess whether more specialist symbionts will increase within coral hosts under ocean warming. The present study is only applicable to those corals that naturally have the capacity to support more than one type of Symbiodinium within the lifetime of a colony; for example, Montastraea annularis and Montastraea faveolata. Methodology/Principal FindingsThe population dynamics of competing Symbiodinium symbiont populations were projected through time in coral hosts using a novel, discrete time optimal–resource model. Models were run for two Atlantic Ocean localities. Four symbiont populations, with different environmental optima and phenotypic variances, were modeled to grow, divide, and compete in the corals under seasonal fluctuations in solar insolation and seawater temperature. Elevated seawater temperatures were input into the model 1.5°C above the seasonal summer average, and the symbiont population response was observed for each location. The models showed dynamic fluctuations in Symbiodinium populations densities within corals. Population density predictions for Lee Stocking Island, the Bahamas, where temperatures were relatively homogenous throughout the year, showed a dominance of both type 2, with high phenotypic variance, and type 1, a high-temperature and high-insolation specialist. Whereas the densities of Symbiodinium types 3 and 4, a high-temperature, low-insolation specialist, and a high-temperature, low-insolation generalist, remained consistently low. Predictions for Key Largo, Florida, where environmental conditions were more seasonally variable, showed the coexistence of generalists (types 2 and 4) and low densities of specialists (types 1 and 3). When elevated temperatures were input into the model, population densities in corals at Lee Stocking Island showed an emergence of high-temperature specialists. However, even under high temperatures, corals in the Florida Keys were dominated by generalists.Conclusions/SignificancePredictions at higher seawater temperatures showed endogenous shuffling and an emergence of the high-temperature Symbiodinium specialists, even though their phenotypic variance was low. The model shows that sustaining these “hidden” specialists becomes advantageous under thermal stress conditions, and shuffling symbionts may increase the corals' capacity to acclimatize but not adapt to climatechange–induced ocean warming.

Stability of symbiotic dinoflagellate type in the octocoral Briareum asbestinum

Coral bleaching — the loss of photosynthetic algal symbionts from their cnidarian hosts — can lead to coral mortality and subsequent reef degradation. To understand the phenomenon of coral bleaching it is imperative to understand natural fluctuations in symbiotic dinoflagellate diver- sity and density. In this study, Symbiodinium type, based on length variation in domain V of the chloroplast large subunit of rDNA (cp23S rDNA), and cell densities were followed in 2 populations of the octocoral Briareum asbestinum over 1 yr. Symbiodinium type varied little over the course of the study despite anomalously cold sea surface temperatures during January 2003, when B. asbestinum populations experienced a significant loss of symbionts. This provides some of the first evidence that Caribbean octocorals are susceptible to cold-water bleaching events. Furthermore, the symbiont stability observed within B. asbestinum contributes to an increasing number of studies suggesting that many zooxanthellate coral species may not respond to fluctuating environments by changing symbionts.

Bacterial communities of juvenile corals infected with different Symbiodinium (dinoflagellate) clades

The coral holobiont consists of the host and its microbial partners, including the dinoflagellate endosymbiont Symbiodinium and bacteria living both on and within coral tissues. Although genetically different, Symbiodinium types have been shown to differentially affect the physiology of the coral host; their effects on the bacterial partners in the association are unknown. The present study compares profiles of the bacterial communities associated with juvenile corals of Acropora millepora and A. tenuis that had been experimentally infected with 2 different clades of Symbiodinium, Clade C1 and D, to investigate possible interactions between bacterial and Symbiodinium communities. Three culture-independent 16S rRNA gene profiling methods (clone library construction, terminal restriction length polymorphism and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) revealed no discernible pattern in bacterial communities on 9 mo old juvenile corals containing different clades of zooxanthellae, suggesting that coral-associated bacteria are not linked to Symbiodinium types in hospite in early ontogeny. In contrast to bacterial profiles of adult corals, bacterial communities associated with juvenile corals were highly variable, indicating that bacterial associates are not conserved in these early stages. When 12 mo old juveniles were sampled again in summer, bacterial communities associated with A. tenuis hosting Clade D Symbiodinium were dominated by sequences affiliating with Vibrio species, indicating that corals harbouring this symbiont may be more susceptible to temperature stress, allowing growth of opportunistic microbial community members possibly detrimental to coral health.

Onset of algal endosymbiont specificity varies among closely related species of Acropora corals during early ontogeny

Juveniles of a number of corals with horizontal transmission of dinoflagellate endosymbionts naturally acquire and maintain Symbiodinium types that differ from those found in adult populations. However, the duration of this early period of symbiont flexibility and successional changes leading to dominance by the characteristic adult (homologous) type are unknown. To document natural succession of Symbiodinium types within juvenile corals, we monitored Symbiodinium communities in juveniles of Acropora tenuis and Acropora millepora for 3.5 years. Juveniles originating from one of three reef populations, characterized by differing adult coral-Symbiodinium associations, were raised in a common environment. In four out of five cases, juveniles became dominated initially by a nonhomologous adult type. Changes in Symbiodinium communities associated with A. tenuis juveniles led to the establishment of the adult homologous association at approximately 3.5 years of age. These changes were not linked to the onset of reproductive maturity, but may be linked to micro-environmental changes associated with vertical growth of juvenile corals. We hypothesize that fine-tuning of specificity mechanisms takes place during ontogeny in A. tenuis, leading to the eventual establishment of the adult homologous association. However, Symbiodinium communities in A. millepora juveniles did not change significantly over the 3.5 years, potentially reflecting (i) lack of specificity, (ii) more than a 3.5-year delay in the onset of specificity, or (iii) lack of availability of the adult Symbiodinium type. This study demonstrates that juvenile corals may survive for extended periods of time with nonhomologous Symbiodinium types and that closely related species of Acropora differ in the timing of the onset of specificity for algal symbionts.

Highly infectious symbiont dominates initial uptake in coral juveniles

The majority of reef-building corals acquire their obligate algal symbionts (Symbiodinium) from the environment. However, factors shaping the initial establishment of coral-algal symbioses, including parental effects, local environmental conditions and local availability of symbionts, are not well understood. This study monitored the uptake and maintenance of Symbiodinium in juveniles of two common corals, Acropora tenuis and Acropora millepora, that were reciprocally explanted between sites where adult colonies host different types of Symbiodinium. We found that coral juveniles were rapidly dominated by type D Symbiodinium, even though this type is not found in adult colonies (including the parental colonies) in four out of the five study populations. Furthermore, type D Symbiodinium was found in less than one-third of a wide range of coral species (n > 50) sampled at the two main study sites, suggesting that its dominance in the acroporid juveniles is not because it is the most abundant local endosymbiotic type. Moreover, dominance by type D was observed irrespective of the light intensity to which juveniles were exposed in a field study. In summary, despite its relatively low abundance in coral assemblages at the study sites and irrespective of the surrounding light environment, type D Symbiodinium is the main symbiont type initially acquired by juveniles of A. millepora and A. tenuis. We conclude that during early ontogeny in these corals, there are few barriers to the uptake of Symbiodinium types which differ from those found in parental colonies, resulting in dominance by a highly infectious and potentially opportunistic symbiont.

The Roles and Interactions of Symbiont, Host and Environment in Defining Coral Fitness

BackgroundReef-building corals live in symbiosis with a diverse range of dinoflagellate algae (genus Symbiodinium) that differentially influence the fitness of the coral holobiont. The comparative role of symbiont type in holobiont fitness in relation to host genotype or the environment, however, is largely unknown. We addressed this knowledge gap by manipulating host-symbiont combinations and comparing growth, survival and thermal tolerance among the resultant holobionts in different environments.Methodology/Principal FindingsOffspring of the coral, Acropora millepora, from two thermally contrasting locations, were experimentally infected with one of six Symbiodinium types, which spanned three phylogenetic clades (A, C and D), and then outplanted to the two parental field locations (central and southern inshore Great Barrier Reef, Australia). Growth and survival of juvenile corals were monitored for 31–35 weeks, after which their thermo-tolerance was experimentally assessed. Our results showed that: (1) Symbiodinium type was the most important predictor of holobiont fitness, as measured by growth, survival, and thermo-tolerance; (2) growth and survival, but not heat-tolerance, were also affected by local environmental conditions; and (3) host population had little to no effect on holobiont fitness. Furthermore, coral-algal associations were established with symbiont types belonging to clades A, C and D, but three out of four symbiont types belonging to clade C failed to establish a symbiosis. Associations with clade A had the lowest fitness and were unstable in the field. Lastly, Symbiodinium types C1 and D were found to be relatively thermo-tolerant, with type D conferring the highest tolerance in A. millepora.Conclusions/SignificanceThese results highlight the complex interactions that occur between the coral host, the algal symbiont, and the environment to shape the fitness of the coral holobiont. An improved understanding of the factors affecting coral holobiont fitness will assist in predicting the responses of corals to global climate change.

Population structure of Symbiodinium sp. associated with the common sea fan, Gorgonia ventalina, in the Florida Keys across distance, depth, and time

Numerous marine invertebrates form endosymbiotic relationships with dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium. However, few studies have examined the fine-scale population structure of these symbionts. Here, we describe the genetic structure of Symbiodinium type “B1/B184” inhabiting the gorgonian Gorgonia ventalina along the Florida Keys. Six polymorphic microsatellite loci were utilized to examine 16 populations along the Upper, Middle, and Lower Keys spanning a range of ~200 km. Multiple statistical tests detected significant differentiation in 54–92% of the 120 possible pairwise comparisons between localities, suggesting low levels of gene flow in these dinoflagellates. In general, populations clustered by geographic region and/or reefs in close proximity. Some of the sharpest population differentiation was detected between Symbiodinium from deep and shallow sites on the same reef. In spite of the high degree of population structure, alleles and genotypes were shared among localities, indicating some connectivity between Symbiodinium populations associated with G. ventalina.

Symbiodinium associations with diseased and healthy scleractinian corals

Despite recent advances in identifying the causative agents of disease in corals and understanding the impact of epizootics on reef communities, little is known regarding the interactions among diseases, corals, and their dinoflagellate endosymbionts (Symbiodinium spp.). Since the genotypes of both corals and their resident Symbiodinium contribute to colony-level phenotypes, such as thermotolerance, symbiont genotypes might also contribute to the resistance or susceptibility of coral colonies to disease. To explore this, Symbiodinium were identified using the internal transcribed spacer-2 region of ribosomal DNA from diseased and healthy tissues within individual coral colonies infected with black band disease (BB), dark spot syndrome (DSS), white plague disease (WP), or yellow blotch disease (YB) in the Florida Keys (USA) and the US Virgin Islands. Most of the diseased colonies sampled contained B1, B5a, or C1 (depending on host species), while apparently healthy colonies of the same coral species frequently hosted these types and/or additional symbiont diversity. No potentially “parasitic” Symbiodinium types, uniquely associated with diseased coral tissue, were detected. Within most individual colonies, the same dominant Symbiodinium type was detected in diseased and visually healthy tissues. These data indicate that specific Symbiodinium types are not correlated with the infected tissues of diseased colonies and that DSS and WP onset do not trigger symbiont shuffling within infected tissues. However, few diseased colonies contained clade D symbionts suggesting a negative correlation between hosting Symbiodinium clade D and disease incidence in scleractinian corals. Understanding the influence of Symbiodinium diversity on colony phenotypes may play a critical role in predicting disease resistance and susceptibility in scleractinian corals.

Apoptosis as a post‐phagocytic winnowing mechanism in a coral–dinoflagellate mutualism

This study was aimed at detecting apoptosis as a post-phagocytic mechanism of symbiont selection during the onset of symbiosis in larvae of the scleractinian coral Fungia scutaria. Larvae were infected with one of three Symbiodinium types: freshly isolated homologous ITS-type C1f from adult F. scutaria, heterologous C31 from adult Montipora capitata, known to be unable to successfully colonize F. scutaria larvae, and type B1 from the symbiotic sea anemone Aiptasia spp. Apoptosis was detected by the activation of caspases, enzymes specific to apoptosis. Caspase activity was measured in situ by cleavage of a specific fluorophore and detection with confocal microscopy. At 6 h post infection, there was a significant increase in caspase activation in gastrodermal cells in C31-infected larvae, compared with larvae infected with C1f or B1 types. Compared with control larvae infected with C31, which had decreased infection rates present by 24 h post infection, when C31-infected larvae were incubated with a broad-scale caspase inhibitor, the per cent of larvae infected with C31 did not significantly decrease over time. This indicates that the reduction in infection success observed in untreated C31-infected larvae can be rescued with inhibition of caspases and apoptosis. This suggests the presence of a post-phagocytic recognition mechanism. Larvae infected with freshly isolated B1 retained infection success over time compared with C31-infected larvae, suggesting that there is host discrimination between heterologous algae. Initiation of this post-phagocytic response may occur more readily with a highly specific heterologous symbiont type such as C31, compared with a generalist heterologous type such as clade B1.

High genetic differentiation and cross-shelf patterns of genetic diversity among Great Barrier Reef populations of Symbiodinium

The resilience of Symbiodinium harboured by corals is dependent on the genetic diversity and extent of connectivity among reef populations. This study presents genetic analyses of Great Barrier Reef (GBR) populations of clade C Symbiodinium hosted by the alcyonacean coral, Sinularia flexibilis. Allelic variation at four newly developed microsatellite loci demonstrated that Symbiodinium populations are genetically differentiated at all spatial scales from 16 to 1,360 km (pairwise ΦST = 0.01–0.47, mean = 0.22); the only exception being two neighbouring populations in the Cairns region separated by 17 km. This indicates that gene flow is restricted for Symbiodinium C hosted by S. flexibilis on the GBR. Patterns of population structure reflect longshore circulation patterns and limited cross-shelf mixing, suggesting that passive transport by currents is the primary mechanism of dispersal in Symbiodinium types that are acquired horizontally. There was no correlation between the genetic structure of Symbiodinium populations and their host S. flexibilis, most likely because different factors affect the dispersal and recruitment of each partner in the symbiosis. The genetic diversity of these Symbiodinium reef populations is on average 1.5 times lower on inshore reefs than on offshore reefs. Lower inshore diversity may reflect the impact of recent bleaching events on Sinularia assemblages, which have been more widespread and severe on inshore reefs, but may also have been shaped by historical sea level fluctuations or recent migration patterns.

Photobiology of Symbiodinium revisited: bio-physical and bio-optical signatures

Light is often the most abundant resource within the nutrient-poor waters surrounding coral reefs. Consequently, zooxanthellae (Symbiodinium spp.) must continually photoacclimate to optimise productivity and ensure coral success. In situ coral photobiology is becoming dominated by routine assessments using state-of-the-art non-invasive bio-optical or chlorophyll a fluorescence (bio-physical) techniques. Multiple genetic types of Symbiodinium are now known to exist; however, little focus has been given as to how these types differ in terms of characteristics that are observable using these techniques. Therefore, this investigation aimed to revisit and expand upon a pivotal study by Iglesias-Prieto and Trench (1994) by comparing the photoacclimation characteristics of different Symbiodinium types based on their bio-physical (chlorophyll a fluorescence, reaction centre counts) and bio-optical (optical absorption, pigment concentrations) ‘signatures’. Signatures described here are unique to Symbiodinium type and describe phenotypic responses to set conditions, and hence are not suitable to describe taxonomic structure of in hospiteSymbiodinium communities. In this study, eight Symbiodinium types from clades and sub-clades (A–B, F) were grown under two PFDs (Photon Flux Density) and examined. The photoacclimation response by Symbiodinium was highly variable between algal types for all bio-physical and for many bio-optical measurements; however, a general preference to modifying reaction centre content over effective antennae-absorption was observed. Certain bio-optically derived patterns, such as light absorption, were independent of algal type and, when considered per photosystem, were matched by reaction centre stoichiometry. Only by better understanding genotypic and phenotypic variability between Symbiodinium types can future studies account for the relative taxonomic and physiological contribution by Symbiodinium to coral acclimation.

Mechanisms of habitat segregation between corallimorpharians: photosynthetic parameters and Symbiodinium types

Corallimorpharians are evolutionarily important relatives to reef-building corals, yet lit- tle is known about their ecophysiology. We demonstrate that physiological mechanisms determine, in part, the light-dependent distributional patterns of 2 corallimorpharians, Rhodactis rhodostoma and Discosoma unguja, on coral reefs in the northern Red Sea. Field measurements of the physiological parameters related to photosynthetic activity revealed that zooxanthellae abundance, chlorophyll a concentration, maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm), and excitation pressure of Photosytem II (Qm) varied equally for both species among 3 depths. In contrast, laboratory measurements in 3 experimental light treatments — low light (LL), medium light (ML) and high light (HL) — revealed that D. unguja was more sensitive to HL than R. rhodostoma. Genetic characterization of their endosymbiotic algae using a PCR for the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS2) of nuclear ribosomal DNA showed that both R. rhodostoma and D. unguja contain Symbiodinium ITS2-type C1 symbionts in shallow areas, but that the algal assemblage were either Type C1 or Type D1a in both species in deeper areas. In reciprocal depth, light, and temperature manipulation experiments, bleached R. rhodostoma never shuffled Symbiodinium ITS2 types, however, some R. rhodostoma in the control treatment did. In contrast, some individuals of D. unguja shuffled Symbiodinium ITS2 types both in field-reciprocal experiments and laboratory-control treatments. Both species contained UV radiation absorbing com- pounds over a wide-depth range. We concluded that the photoacclimation mechanisms of R. rhodos- toma and D. unguja were influenced by both host- and symbiont-mediated factors. We hypothesize that a low abundance of D. unguja in shallow water was due to decreased tolerance to the high irra- diance found in host factors.

CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN COLD TOLERANCE AND TEMPERATE BIOGEOGRAPHY IN A WESTERN ATLANTIC SYMBIODINIUM (DINOPHYTA) LINEAGE(1).

Many corals form obligate symbioses with photosynthetic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium Freudenthal (1962). These symbionts vary genotypically, with their geographical distribution and abundance dependent upon host specificity and tolerance to temperature and light variation. Despite the importance of these mutualistic relationships, the physiology and ecology of Symbiodinium spp. remain poorly characterized. Here, we report that rDNA internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) defined Symbiodinium type B2 associates with the cnidarian hosts Astrangia poculata and Oculina arbuscula from northerly habitats of the western Atlantic. Using pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) fluorometry, we compared maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII of type B2 to that of common tropical Symbiodinium lineages (types A3, B1, and C2) under cold-stress conditions. Symbiont cultures were gradually cooled from 26°C to 10°C to simulate seasonal temperature declines. Cold stress decreased the maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII and likely the photosynthetic potential for all Symbiodinium clades tested. Cultures were then maintained at 10°C for a 2-week period and gradually returned to initial conditions. Subsequent to low temperature stress, only type B2 displayed rapid and full recovery of PSII photochemical efficiency, whereas other symbiont phylotypes remained nonfunctional. These findings indicate that the distribution and abundance of Symbiodinium spp., and by extension their cnidarian hosts, in temperate climates correspond significantly with the photosynthetic cold tolerance of these symbiotic algae.