Switch Trials Research Articles

Domain-general inhibition ability predicts the intensity of inhibition on non-target language in bilingual word production: An ERP study

AbstractThis study investigated the predictive effects of executive functions on bilingual language control processes. We used a flanker task, a switching task and an n-back task to investigate inhibition, shifting, and updating, respectively. We adopted a cued language switching task to investigate the language control processes during bilingual word production. Results of linear mixed effects models showed that picture naming in switch trials was significantly slower and elicited larger stimulus-locked N2 and N400-like components. The results further showed that the flanker effect alone robustly predicted the variability of the N2 but not N400-like switch effects. These findings suggest that domain-general inhibition appears to predict the intensity of inhibition exerted on the lexical items in the non-target language during bilingual word production, but bilingual language control only partially overlaps with executive functions.

The contribution of grammar and lexicon to language switching costs: Examining contact-induced languages and their implications for theories of language representation

AbstractMany language pairs chosen in language switching studies differ randomly on multiple linguistic levels, thus obscuring the nature of switching costs. Contact-induced languages, i.e., creoles (e.g., Spanish-based Palenquero) and mixed languages (e.g., Media Lengua), having arisen in intense language contact scenarios, relate systematically to their source languages by displaying high proportions of cognates or shared grammar. This configuration can speak to the relative contribution of lexicon and grammar to switching costs. Results from a production and comprehension task show that switching costs are systematically tied to a language pair's grammatical distance. This suggests that switching costs may result from the re-generation of the morphosyntactic frame on switch trials. Emphasizing the value of testing psycholinguistic theories outside of the usual Western populations, the current study provides insight into the degree of shared mental representations between contact-induced languages and their source languages.

P469 Stay in class or switch out of class after anti-TNF failure in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Real-world data from a large district general hospital

Abstract Background Biosimilar infliximab (IFX) and adalimumab (ADA) are well-proven cost-effective anti-TNF drugs in IBD; in our practice, the majority of patients with IBD receive IFX or ADA first line. Since the introduction of Vedolizumab (VED) and Ustekinumab (UST) some have recommended switching out of class after failing a single anti-TNF. This practice has significant cost implications. To establish the outcome of treatment response in patients treated with a second anti-TNF agent after anti-TNF failure compared with the outcome of patients treated with VED and UST after anti-TNF failure. Methods We maintain a prospective IBD database. We searched our database for the outcomes of patients who failed their first anti-TNF drug but were in a clinical remission 6 months after changing to a second or third biologic drug. Disease type, age, gender and response to their second and third biologic drug were recorded. Clinical remission was defined as off steroids with calprotectin <250 and no symptoms of active IBD. Results Two hundred and eighty-seven patients were identified. One hundred and forty (48.8%) were male. Mean age was 43.2 (range 18–94). Disease type was 75 (26%) UC, 210 (73.2%) CD, 2 (0.7%) IBD-U. One hundred and ninety-three patients received IFX 1st line, 118 (40%) failed. Of these 84 (72%) received ADA, 28 (24%) VED and 6 (5%) UST second line. Remission with second-line treatment was achieved in 58 (69%); ADA, 18 (64%); VED, 6 (100%); UST. Remission with third line treatment; was achieved in 6 (100%); VED; 5 (100%); UST. Ninety-four patients received ADA 1st line, 33 (35%) failed. Of these 11 (33%) received IFX, 10 (30%) VED and 8 (24%) UST second line. Remission with second-line treatment was achieved in 6 (55%); IFX, 10 (100%); VED and 8 (100%); UST. Remission with third line treatment; was achieved in 1 (100%); VED, 4 (100%); UST. Conclusion Our data suggest that treatment with ADA after IFX failure is an effective treatment option whereas IFX treatment after ADA failure is less effective. It is interesting that the majority of those who failed the anti-integrin treatment second line responded to third line ADA. These data are consistent with earlier anti-TNF studies including GAIN (Gauging Adalimumab efficacy in Infliximab Non-responders) and SWITCH (Switch to adalimumab in patients with Crohn’s disease controlled by maintenance infliximab: prospective randomised SWITCH trial) which demonstrated that anti-TNF failure is not a class effect. We recommend prescribing a second anti-TNF after anti-TNF failure in preference to using an anti-integrin second line. This practice will lead to significant cost savings for the health care economy.

Does objectively-assessed sleep moderate the association between history of major depressive disorder and task-switching?

BackgroundExecutive function and psychomotor speed are consistently impaired in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). Persistent cognitive impairments after depression remission are thought to reflect “scarring” from the neurotoxic effects of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity during a depressive episode. As sleep also deteriorates with depression and restores daytime executive functions, we examined whether adequate sleep could be protective against task-switching and psychomotor impairments associated with a history of MDD. MethodsThis cross-sectional study tested task-switching associations with MDD history, sleep, and their interaction to determine whether sleep continuity and sleep duration moderate the relationship between MDD history and task-switching performance. ResultsAfter adjusting for age, sex, education, current depressive symptoms, and use of anti-depressants, a history of MDD, particularly recurrent MDD, was associated with slower response speed and disproportionately lower accuracy on repetition trials compared to switch trials, reflecting impaired adoption of a task-set. Regardless of MDD history, higher wake after sleep onset and shorter total sleep time were associated with slower response times, but neither sleep measure moderated the association between depression history and task-switching performance. LimitationsThis cross-sectional study cannot assess the causal direction of associations. One night of sleep in the laboratory was used to assess sleep and a single task-switching paradigm was used to assess executive function. ConclusionsThese results suggest that longer, more continuous sleep is associated with greater psychomotor speed across healthy controls and those with a history of MDD, but MDD-task-switching associations are not mitigated by longer or more continuous sleep.

The persisting influence of unattended auditory information: Negative priming in intentional auditory attention switching.

We studied negative priming (NP) in auditory attention switching. In a cued variant of dichotic listening, two spoken number words were presented, one to each ear, one spoken by a female, and one spoken by a male voice. A visual cue indicated whether the male or female voice was the target. A numerical magnitude judgement of the target number was required. The selection criterion could either switch or repeat across trials, so there were attention switch and repetition trials. Two experiments examined NP (distractor becomes target) and also included a "competitor priming" (CP) condition (target becomes distractor), relative to a "no priming" condition (target and distractor not related to previous trial). In Experiment 1, we investigated the basic priming effects. In Experiment 2, we additionally varied the response-cue interval (RCI; 100 ms vs. 1,900 ms) to examine time-related changes in priming. We found longer response times (RT) for switch trials compared with repetition trials (attention switch costs)-that is, when the internal processing context changed. In addition, we found longer RT for NP trials as well as reduced switch costs in long RCI, suggesting that previously relevant attentional settings dissipate over longer time. However, NP was not influenced by attention switches, and it was also not affected byRCI. Hence, NP in auditory attention switching does not seem strongly context or time sensitive.

Altered proactive control in adults with ADHD: Evidence from event-related potentials during cued task switching

Cognitive control has two distinct modes – proactive and reactive (Braver, T. S. (2012). The variable nature of cognitive control: a dual mechanisms framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(2), 105–112). ADHD has been associated with cognitive control impairments. However, studies have mainly focused on reactive control and not proactive control. Here we investigated neural correlates of proactive and reactive cognitive control in a group of adults with ADHD versus healthy controls by employing a cued switching task while cue informativeness was manipulated and EEG recorded. On the performance level, only a trend to generally slower responding was found in the ADHD group. Cue-locked analyses revealed an attenuated informative-positivity – a differential component appearing when contrasting informative with non-informative alerting cues – and potentially altered lateralisation of the switch-positivity – evident in the contrast between switch and repeat trials for informative cues – in ADHD. No difference in target-locked activity was found. Our results indicate altered proactive rather than reactive control in adults with ADHD, evidenced by less use of cued advance information and abnormal preparatory processes for upcoming tasks.

How sequential changes in reward expectation modulate cognitive control: Pupillometry as a tool to monitor dynamic changes in reward expectation

Much evidence suggests that positive affect associated with performance-contingent reward modulates cognitive flexibility and stability. For example, in voluntary task switching, it has been shown that unchanged high reward promotes cognitive stability whereas increases or decreases in reward prospect as well as unchanged low reward promote cognitive flexibility (higher voluntary switch rate, VSR). Pupil diameter has been shown to respond to reward prospect, to task switching manipulations, and more generally to effort in cognitive control tasks and thus appears to be the ideal tool to learn more about the processes underlying these reward-modulated decisions. Therefore, we measured pupillary activity in two voluntary task switching experiments with randomly changing reward magnitudes. Behaviorally, VSR was again lowest when reward remained high as compared to all other reward sequences. Baseline pupil diameter was generally higher following switch trials as compared to repetition trials. Furthermore, the pupil responded dynamically to the reward manipulation: Phasic cue- and target-locked pupil dilation was larger in the reward phase as compared to the non-reward baseline block. Most importantly, phasic pupil dilation in the target interval was highest when reward prospect increased and lowest when reward prospect decreased, suggesting that motivational arousal fluctuates in sync with changes in reward expectation. These results are discussed with respect to current theories on cognitive control as a form of affect regulation.

Effect of Cognitive Style on Language Control During Joint Language Switching: An ERP Study.

The current study aims to investigate how Field independent (FI) and Field-dependent (FD) cognitive styles modulate bilingual language control during a joint language switching task. The cognitive styles were measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT). The FI group with a preference for autonomous information processing was sensitive to role switching earlier at the cue stage, eliciting a more negative-going N2 in the cross-person condition than in the within-person condition. While the FD group, with a holistic processing style, discerned such role switching later, inducing a more positive-going late positive component (LPC) in the cross-person condition. In addition, the FD group exercised more cognitive control to suppress the interference from the L1 lemma, indexed by larger LPC amplitudes for L2 switch trials than L1 switch trials in the within-person condition. These findings suggest that FDI cognitive styles modulate bilingual language control mechanism through different manners of information processing.

Is inhibition involved in voluntary language switching? Evidence from transcranial direct current stimulation over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

How do bilinguals freely switch languages in daily life (i.e., voluntary language switching)? Does this involve inhibition of cross-language interference, or does easier lexical access to specific words directly trigger switches to another language? To reveal the underlying mechanism of voluntary language switching, the current study applied transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC), an area associated with inhibitory control, to investigate whether and how inhibitory control is involved in voluntary language switching. Interestingly, during the A-tDCS and C-tDCS sessions, bilinguals showed faster naming latencies in repeat trials compared to switch trials, indicating a switch cost. Moreover, the cathodal stimulation exhibited a larger LPC in switching to L2 compared to switching to L1. In contrast, the S-tDCS (sham) session showed no switch cost, faster switch naming latencies compared to the A-tDCS and C-tDCS sessions, and little differences in LPC between switch and repeat trials. Together, these findings suggest that modulating inhibition-related brain regions interferes with voluntary language switching.

Working memory prioritization impacts neural recovery from distraction

The ability to protect goal-relevant information from disruption over short intervals is a hallmark of working memory. Recent behavioral data suggest that high-priority items in working memory are more vulnerable to disruption. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to evaluate the hypothesis that prioritization of working memories might impact the recovery of their neural representation(s) after distraction. A delay-period retrospective cue informed participants which of two memory items (a face or a scene) to prioritize during a first delay period. Consistent with prior work, and confirming successful prioritization, multivoxel pattern classifier evidence in perceptual brain regions was higher for cued versus uncued memory items. A distraction task was then imposed before a second retrospective cue informed participants to either “stay” remembering the previously cued item or “switch” to the previously uncued item. This allowed for the evaluation of recovery for high-priority items (on stay trials) and also low-priority items (on switch trials). Classifiers showed successful reinstatement of both high- and low-priority items after distraction, but only low-priority items recovered to their pre-distraction representational levels. Moreover, the degree of prioritization before distraction predicted the amount of disruption for high-priority items after distraction, suggesting that the more a participant prioritized the cued item, the greater the impact of distraction. Our data provide neural evidence that prioritizing working memory information in perceptual regions makes that information more vulnerable to disruption.

Reward Boosts Neural Coding of Task Rules to Optimize Cognitive Flexibility.

Cognitive flexibility is critical for intelligent behavior. However, its execution is effortful and often suboptimal. Recent work indicates that flexible behavior can be improved by the prospect of reward, which suggests that rewards optimize flexible control processes. Here we investigated how different reward prospects influence neural encoding of task rule information to optimize cognitive flexibility. We applied representational similarity analysis to human electroencephalograms, recorded while female and male participants performed a rule-guided decision-making task. During the task, the prospect of reward varied from trial to trial. Participants made faster, more accurate judgements on high-reward trials. Critically, high reward boosted neural coding of the active task rule, and the extent of this increase was associated with improvements in task performance. Additionally, the effect of high reward on task rule coding was most pronounced on switch trials, where rules were updated relative to the previous trial. These results suggest that reward prospect can promote cognitive performance by strengthening neural coding of task rule information, helping to improve cognitive flexibility during complex behavior.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The importance of motivation is evident in the ubiquity with which reward prospect guides adaptive behavior and the striking number of neurological conditions associated with motivational impairments. In this study, we investigated how dynamic changes in motivation, as manipulated through reward, shape neural coding for task rules during a flexible decision-making task. The results of this work suggest that motivation to obtain reward modulates the encoding of task rules needed for flexible behavior. The extent to which reward increased task rule coding also tracked improvements in behavioral performance under high-reward conditions. These findings help to inform how motivation shapes neural processing in the healthy human brain.

Effects of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Cognitive Flexibility Required During Task-Switching Paradigm.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of acute aerobic exercise on underlying neuronal activities associated with task-switching processes including both mixing and switch effects. A total of 29 healthy young adults (21.4 ± 1.2 years) participated in this study. The experiment consisted of an exercise and a rest condition. In the exercise condition, participants completed 30 min of self-paced motor-driven treadmill exercise at 70% intensity of maximum heart rate (HRmax). In the rest condition, participants rested quietly for 30 min. Both conditions were conducted on different days, and the order was counterbalanced across participants. Participants performed the task-switching paradigm (switching between two different tasks), after both exercise and rest conditions respectively. The P3 amplitude was smaller in the non-switch trial than the single trial only in the rest condition, but not in the exercise condition. In other words, more attentional resources were allocated to the non-switch trial requiring greater amounts of working memory following the exercise condition. Mixing and switch effects on the P3 component were influenced by acute aerobic exercise. This result suggests that acute aerobic exercise may serve to facilitate the flexibility of task-set reconfiguration and maintain the task set in working memory. Furthermore, during the switch trials, the P3 latency was shorter in the exercise condition than in the rest condition. This result is consistent with the findings of previous studies, indicating that cognitive processing speed is increased only during task conditions requiring greater amounts of executive control. Our study clearly indicates that acute aerobic exercise may facilitate cognitive flexibility as well as other executive functions (i.e., inhibitory control and working memory).

The Effect of Exercise on Neural Activation in Older Adults

Acute exercise (EX) affects neural activation, assessed with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and is a suggested mechanism in the effects of EX on behavioral measures of cognition. PURPOSE: We investigated the effect of EX on neural activation during a set switching task (SST). METHODS: Six healthy, right-handed older adults (M=71.4±5.1) completed two separate visits [EX; 30-min of cycling at 55-65%Heart Rate Reserve and rest (RS); 30-min of seated rest]. After EX or RS participants completed a SST during an fMRI. SSTs are a measure of executive function where participants shift attention between sets of rules during the task. Switch cost (cost) is the performance difference between switching (i.e. A, B, A) and repeat trials (i.e. A, A, A). The conditions included rest, a high switching block [70% switching, 30% repeat trials (HS)], and a low switching block [20% switching, 80% repeat trials (LS)]. fMRI analyses using FSL included assessment of main effects of activation during HS and LS blocks during EX and RS and a comparison of activation with reaction time cost. RESULTS: Across both HS and LS and EX and RS, participants similarly activated the lateral occipital cortex and frontopolar area. In addition, there was significant activation of the superior and inferior frontal gyri, middle frontal gyrus, cerebellum VIIb, thalamus, caudate, and insula following RS in HS and LS. There were no unique areas of activation in HS following EX, however in LS there was activation in the temporal occipital fusiform gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, and middle frontal gyrus. In relation to performance, cost during HS was associated with activation of the cerebellum VIIb following EX and activation of the thalamus and occipital pole following RS. Further, cost during LS was associated with activation in the frontopolar area after EX and activation in the thalamus following RS. CONCLUSION: Similar activation during HS and LS following rest and EX suggests a common network for SSTs. During the HS blocks, EX did not elicit additional unique activation, as seen following RS or the LS block, suggesting EX-induced efficiency. More research is needed to better understand the implication of differential activation. Results presented at ACSM will include additional participants; findings and conclusions will reflect the final analyses.

Feature-based guidance of attention during post-saccadic selection

Current models of trans-saccadic perception propose that, after a saccade, the saccade target object must be localized among objects near the landing position. However, the nature of the attentional mechanisms supporting this process is currently under debate. In the present study, we tested whether surface properties of the saccade target object automatically bias post-saccadic selection using a variant of the visual search task. Participants executed a saccade to a shape-singleton target in a circular array. During this primary saccade, the array sometimes rotated so that the eyes landed between the target and an adjacent distractor, requiring gaze correction. In addition, each object in the array had an incidental color value. On Switch trials, the target and adjacent distractor switched colors. The accuracy and latency of gaze correction to the target (measures that provide a direct index of target localization) were compared with a control condition in which no color switch occurred (No-switch trials). Gaze correction to the target was substantially impaired in the Switch condition. This result was obtained even when participants had substantial incentive to avoid encoding the color of the saccade target. In addition, similar effects were observed when the roles of the two feature dimensions (color and shape) were reversed. The results indicate that saccade target features are automatically encoded before a saccade, are retained in visual working memory across the saccade, and instantiate a feature-based selection operation when the eyes land, biasing attention toward objects that match target features.

Pre-retrieval event-related potentials predict source memory during task switching

Neural activity preceding memory probes differs according to retrieval goals. These divergences have been linked to retrieval orientations, which are content-specific memory states that bias retrieval towards specific contents. Here, participants were cued to retrieve either spatial location or encoding operations. On the first trial of each memory task (‘switch’ trials), preparatory ERPs preceding correct source memory judgments differed according to retrieval goal, but this effect was absent preceding memory errors. Initiating appropriate retrieval orientations therefore predicted criterial recollection. Preparatory ERPs on the second trial of each memory task (i.e. ‘stay’ trials) also differed according to retrieval goal, but the polarity of this effect was reversed from that observed on switch trials and the effect did not predict memory accuracy. This was interpreted as a correlate of retrieval orientation maintenance, with initiation and maintenance forming dissociable components of these goal-directed memory states. More generally, these findings highlight the importance of pre-retrieval processes in episodic memory.

Pupillary responses and reaction times index different cognitive processes in a combined Go/Switch incidental learning task

In previous studies we have provided evidence that performance in speeded response tasks with infrequent target stimuli reflects both automatic and controlled cognitive processes, based on differences in reaction time (RT) and task-related brain responses (Cheyne et al. 2012, Isabella et al. 2015). Here we test the hypothesis that such shifts in cognitive control may be influenced by changes in cognitive load related to stimulus predictability, and that these changes can be indexed by task-evoked pupillary responses (TEPR). We manipulated stimulus predictability using fixed stimulus sequences that were unknown to the participants in a Go/Switch task (requiring a switch response on 25% of trials) while monitoring TEPR as a measure of cognitive load in 12 healthy adults. Results showed significant improvement in performance (reduced RT, increased efficiency) for repeated sequences compared to occasional deviant sequences (10% probability) indicating that incidental learning of the predictable sequences facilitated performance. All behavioral measures varied between Switch and Go trials (RT, efficiency), however mean TEPR amplitude (mTEPR) and latency to maximum pupil dilation were particularly sensitive to Go/Switch. Results were consistent with the hypothesis that mTEPR indexes cognitive load, whereas TEPR latency indexes time to response selection, independent from response execution. The present study provides evidence that incidental pattern learning during response inhibition tasks may modulate several cognitive processes including cognitive load, effort, response selection and execution, which can in turn have differential effects on measures of performance. In particular, we demonstrate that reaction time may not be indicative of underlying cognitive load.

The Effect of Judo Training on Set-Shifting in School Children.

Improving executive functions (EFs) is desirable as they are considered to be critical for academic attainment and mental wellness in children. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of Judo training on the set-shifting function using a spatial task-switching paradigm. Protocol 1 compared the set-shifting ability of Judo players with age-matched healthy individuals. Protocol 2 compared the difference in EFs between children who underwent Judo training (intervention) and age-matched controls. EFs were assessed by a spatial task-switching test. Error rates and response times were analysed using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Protocol 1. The group effect on error rates was significant. The trial type × group effect was significant in the Judo group. Error rates in the Judo group were lower in the switch trials than the control group (p = 0.001). No significant group difference was seen in the repeat trials (p = 0.764). Protocol 2. The time × trial type × group effect was significant. Post hoc analysis showed significantly lower error rates by the intervention group on switch trials compared to the control group (p = 0.006). Regular Judo training may potentially be an option for improving EFs in schoolchildren or in populations with executive dysfunction.

Frontal theta predicts specific cognitive control-induced behavioural changes beyond general reaction time slowing

Investigations into the neurophysiological underpinnings of control suggest that frontal theta activity is increased with the need for control. However, these studies typically show this link by reporting associations between increased theta and RT slowing – a process that is contemporaneous with cognitive control but does not strictly reflect the specific use of control. In this study, we assessed frontal theta responses that underpinned the switch cost in task switching – a specific index of cognitive control that does not rely exclusively on RT slowing. Here, we utilised a single-trial regression approach to assess 1) how cognitive control demands beyond simple RT slowing were linked to midfrontal theta and 2) whether midfrontal theta effects remained stable over time. In a large cohort that included a longitudinal subsample, we found that midfrontal theta was modulated by switch costs, with enhanced theta power when preparing to switch vs. repeating a task. These effects were reliable after a two-year interval (Cronbach's α.39-0.74). In contrast, we found that trial-by-trial modulations of midfrontal theta power predicted the size of the switch cost – so that switch trials with increased theta produced smaller switch costs. Interestingly, these relationships between theta and behaviour were less stable over time (Cronbach's α 0-0.61), with participants first using both delta and theta bands to influence behaviour whereas after two years only theta associations with behaviour remained. Together, these findings suggest midfrontal theta supports the need for control beyond simple RT slowing and reveal that midfrontal theta effects remain relatively stable over time.

Cognitive control in the cocktail party: Preparing selective attention to dichotically presented voices supports distractor suppression.

The goal of the present study was to investigate preparatory mechanisms of auditory selective attention. In two experiments, participants performed a classification task on one of two dichotically presented spoken number words, one spoken by a female, one spoken by a male. A cue indicated which gender participants had to attend to in the upcoming trial, so that attention switches and repetitions occurred randomly. The cue-target interval (CTI) was either 400 ms or 1,200 ms. Stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between target and distractor word varied; hence, the distractor could be presented before or after the target. In two experiments, we found robust performance costs of attention switches. Like in previous studies using versions of this paradigm, these switch costs were not significantly reduced by prolonged CTI, even though we found substantial general cue-based preparation effects. The most important finding refers to the influence of SOA, showing that the general preparation effect was greater in the condition with the distractor presented first than in the condition with the target presented first. Thus, increased time to prepare for the attention focus of the upcoming trials seems to benefit distractor suppression more than target enhancement. This occurred in switch trials and repetition trials alike, suggesting that it is a general feature of auditory attention.

Investigation of the changes in oscillatory power during task switching after mild traumatic brain injury.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) can cause persistent cognitive changes. These cognitive changes may be due to changes in neural communication. Task-switching is a cognitive control operation that may be susceptible to mTBI and is associated with oscillations in theta (4-7Hz), alpha (8-13Hz), and beta (14-30Hz) ranges. This study aimed to investigate oscillatory power in response to cues indicating a task-switch after mTBI. Electroencephalogram and behavioral data were collected from 21 participants with a history of two or more concussions (mTBI) and 21 age- and gender-matched controls as they performed a task-switching paradigm. Participants differentiated whether visual stimuli were red or green, or circles or squares, depending on a cue. The cue changed every few trials with the first trial after a rule change being termed a switch trial. The mTBI group showed significantly less overall accuracy during the task. Over a posterior parietal region, the mTBI group showed more theta desynchronization than the control group from ~300 to ~600ms post-cue during switch trials and from ~300 to 400ms during maintain trials, along with less alpha and beta desynchronization than the control group from ~2,000 to ~2,200ms post-cue. In a right parietal region, the mTBI group showed less alpha and beta desynchronization from ~525 to ~775ms post-cue. However, there was no condition×group interaction in the behavior or oscillatory results. These oscillatory differences suggest a change in neural communication is present after mTBI that may relate to global changes in task performance.