Swine Farmers Research Articles

1416. Assessing the potential for interspecies transmission of Clostridioides difficile on dairy farms

Background Clostridioides difficile (CD) can cause severe colitis in humans and many species of animals. It is thought that farm animals could be a reservoir for CD and that farm workers could therefore be at increased risk of colonization and infection with CD. While pigs and swine farm workers have been shown to be colonized with identical clones of CD, the zoonotic transmission of CD from animals to people has not been definitively demonstrated, and no studies have examined whether dairy farm workers, who are generally in closer contact with animals than swine farmers, are at increased risk of being colonized or infected with CD. The aim of this study was to assess whether dairy calves and farm workers harbored genetically similar isolates of CD.MethodsFirst, we validated a glove-juice protocol to detect CD spores on the hands of farm workers. Volunteers’ hands were inoculated with serially diluted suspensions of non-toxigenic CD organisms, and hand rinsates underwent broth enrichment and anaerobic culture. Second, we collected fecal samples from 5 randomly selected dairy calves (< 7 d of age) from each of 23 farms in southeastern Pennsylvania, northern Maryland, and Delaware. We focused specifically on dairy calves, as the prevalence of CD is highest in this age group. Third, using the glove-juice protocol, we collected hand rinsates from 38 dairy farm workers who work closely with calves. Only 4 of these workers were willing to submit fecal samples along with their hand rinsates. All fecal samples and hand rinsates underwent broth enrichment and anaerobic culture for CD.ResultsValidation of the glove juice protocol showed that CD could be recovered successfully from all hand rinsate dilutions (up to 10-6). When applied to farm workers, this method yielded CD in none of the hand rinsates (0%, 95% CI 0.0-92.2%). CD was also not detected in any of the human fecal samples. However, CD was detected from calf fecal samples on 10 farms (43.5%, 95% CI 20.8%-80.0%).ConclusionWhile the zoonotic transmission of CD cannot be ruled out, our results suggest that contact with dairy animals is not likely to be associated with an increased risk of acquiring CD via the fecal-oral route. The glove-juice protocol appears to be a useful tool for studying the epidemiology of CD in populations where obtaining fecal samples is difficult.Disclosures All Authors: No reported disclosures

The Social Profile, Constraints, and Its Impact on Swine Herd Size in Tra Vinh Province, Vietnam

The objective of this study was to describe social profile, constraints of swine farmers, and its impact on swine herd size in Tra Vinh Province. This study was conducted in Tra Vinh Province, one of the provinces in Mekong delta, Vietnam. A total of 120 swine farmers selected from small swine farms to commercial swine farms were surveyed with information gathered on 11,466 swine. All of the swine farmers in this study were purposively chosen and interviewed with the questionnaires for data collection. All swine farmers have kept at least 1 swine per farm or had experience at least 1 year for raising and trading swine. The results showed that the majority of farmers were males (57.5%), with the age range of 20-40 years old (47.5%), having more than 10 years of experience (52.5%), having 1-3 members in the family (87.1%), 85% of farmers focused on farm, farmers having livestock farming plus cropping accounted for 55.8%, and farmers having medium farm size with an average of 95-96 heads/farm. In addition, there were 4 constraints that farmers confirmed, i.e., capital (31.6%), disease outbreak (75%), low bargaining power (40%), and the fluctuation of feed price (59.16%). Moreover, experience (p&lt;0.01), education (p&lt;0.01), disease outbreak (p&lt;0.05), and the fluctuation of feed price (p&lt;0.05) had a strong influence on swine herd. It could be concluded that farmers having higher experience and education kept a larger number of swine than others. In contrary, when disease outbreak and the fluctuation of feed price emerge, farmers tended to control their swine herd size.

The Roles of Additive Effect between Swine Keeping Systems and Agro-Ecological Zones in Production and Socioeconomic Traits

The aim of this research was to characterize swine farming system performances tethered under different agro-ecological zones in Papua. The field study was done in Manokwari regency and involved six districts, i.e. Nothern Manokwari district, Eastern Manokari District, Western Manokwari district, Warmare district, Prafi district and Masni district. Respondents chosen were guided by local extensions, originated from 15 villages. Participatory situation analysis (PSA) was employed to approach swine farmers by using questionnaire. Swine body weights of swinelets and growers were weighed except for mature swine, body lengths and hearth girths were measured using tape. Herd number, number of swinelets, adult swine were recorded. A one-way analysis of variances was used. All data were entered in Excel and analyzed using SPPS version 10.0.. The findings shown that interaction between education and keeping systems occur on work hours and ages. Effect of education is significant on experience, location, and ethnic. In keeping systems, effect is real on experience, work hours, location, and ethnic. Interaction do not significant exist in number of swine including see middle man, visited consumer, litter size, number of farrowing and income sources.

Intervention Strategies on the Wastewater Treatment Behavior of Swine Farmers: An Extended Model of the Theory of Planned Behavior

Untreated swine wastewater pollutes rivers and harms the environment. The pollution can be minimized if swine farmers take wastewater treatment (WWT) action before the wastewater is discharged into rivers. Thus, the WWT behavior of swine farmers is key to environmental sustainability. However, WWT behavior, characterized by high costs and inconvenience, has received little attention from previous studies. Due to the high cost, some intervention strategies are helpful in ensuring that farmers behave in a pro-environmental manner. Therefore, this study compares the effects of two intervention factors, i.e., environmental knowledge and perceived effectiveness of enforcement, on the WWT behavior of swine farmers in Taiwan. The comparisons and empirical tests are based on an extended model of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The findings reveal that all three classic factors in the TPB, i.e., attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, had significant and positive effects on the intention of farmers to perform WWT behavior. Contradicting most previous studies, behavioral intentions did not have a significant effect on WWT behavior; however, perceived behavioral control did. The total effects of both intervention factors on WWT behavior were significant and positive. Moreover, the total effect of environmental knowledge was larger than that of the perceived effectiveness of enforcement. The findings suggest that a combination of the two strategies of increasing the environmental knowledge of individuals and enhancing the enforcement of environmental regulations will be helpful in inducing the sustained WWT behavior of farmers. Policy makers can allocate more resources to increasing farmers’ environmental knowledge than to enhancing the enforcement of environmental regulations. Finally, future research directions are discussed.

Economic development and human ties in informal food waste recycling: A follow-up study in Da Nang, Vietnam

This study examined the effects of economic development on the commercialised and non-commercialised segments of informal food waste recycling in Da Nang City, Vietnam. Food waste was collected from the urban centre and used as pig feed in swine farms in suburban areas. The commercialised and non-commercialised segments of this system have evolved differently over time. During our observation period of 2011-2016, swine farmers became concerned about economic efficiency, which affected the manner in which they used food waste. By 2016, more farmers had begun to use food waste brokers instead of collecting food waste themselves so that they could concentrate on rearing pigs. The price of food waste remained low, reflecting the farmers' need for low-cost feeding. This resulted in the closure of commercialised transactions between households and waste collectors amid increased household income. Instead, non-commercialised transactions supported by human ties became the main mode of household participation in food waste recycling . Our findings can guide the use of different elements in this informal recycling system within the framework of a formalised recycling system implemented by the government.

Emissions from Swine Manure Treated with Current Products for Mitigation of Odors and Reduction of NH3, H2S, VOC, and GHG Emissions

Odor and gaseous emissions from the swine industry are of concern for the wellbeing of humans and livestock. Additives applied to the swine manure surface are popular, marketed products to solve this problem and relatively inexpensive and easy for farmers to use. There is no scientific data evaluating the effectiveness of many of these products. We evaluated 12 manure additive products that are currently being marketed on their effectiveness in mitigating odor and gaseous emissions from swine manure. We used a pilot-scale system simulating the storage of swine manure with a controlled ventilation of headspace and periodic addition of manure. This dataset contains measured concentrations and estimated emissions of target gases in manure headspace above treated and untreated swine manure. These include ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, and N2O), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and odor. The experiment to test each manure additive product lasted for two months; the measurements of NH3 and H2S were completed twice a week; others were conducted weekly. The manure for each test was collected from three different farms in central Iowa to provide the necessary variety in stored swine manure properties. This dataset is useful for further analyses of gaseous emissions from swine manure under simulated storage conditions and for performance comparison of marketed products for the mitigation of gaseous emissions. Ultimately, swine farmers, the regulatory community, and the public need to have scientific data informing decisions about the usefulness of manure additives.

African swine fever: Etiology, epidemiological status in Korea, and perspective on control.

African swine fever (ASF), caused by the ASF virus, a member of the Asfarviridae family, is one of the most important diseases in the swine industry due to its clinical and economic impacts. Since the first report of ASF a century ago, ample information has become available, but prevention and treatment measures are still inadequate. Two waves of epizootic outbreaks have occurred worldwide. While the first wave of the epizootic outbreak was controlled in most of the infected areas, the second wave is currently active in the European and Asian continents, causing severe economic losses to the pig industry. There are different patterns of spreading in the outbreaks between those in European and Asian countries. Prevention and control of ASF are very difficult due to the lack of available vaccines and effective therapeutic measures. However, recent outbreaks in South Korea have been successfully controlled on swine farms, although feral pigs are periodically being found to be positive for the ASF virus. Therefore, we would like to share our story regarding the preparation and application of control measures. The success in controlling ASF on farms in South Korea is largely due to the awareness and education of swine farmers and practitioners, the early detection of infected animals, the implementation of strict control policies by the government, and widespread sharing of information among stakeholders. Based on the experience gained from the outbreaks in South Korea, this review describes the current understanding of the ASF virus and its pathogenic mechanisms, epidemiology, and control.

Mitigation of Odour in Swine Production Facilities: A Scientific Approach

Animal households can emit significant amounts of aerial pollutants such as odorous compounds and gasses. Swine odour is generated by anaerobic decomposition of manure, feed materials, and wastewater. Management practices such as daily cleaning, ventilation, floor design, drainage and periodic removal of manure are important to reduce odour effects. Airborne pollutants exposed to high concentrations of VOCs (NH3, CH4, H2S, NOx, etc.), dust, and a number of bio-aerosols (bacteria, viruses, endotoxins, parasites, fungi, mycotoxins, etc.) have detrimental effect on the health and wellbeing of both animals and farm worker. There are many technologies available to minimize odour such as dietary modification, liquid-solid separation, bio-filtration, covers for manure storage, and dust suppression. Of all available technologies, it is important for swine farmers to adopt a particular low cost technology for sustainable pig farming in India.

Sow removal patterns in commercial breed-wean herds of Midwest, USA

An observational retrospective study was done to provide up-to-date information on recent sow removal patterns from 9 breed-wean herds of Midwest USA. The study comprised of sow’s removal reasons and removal types of F1 Landrace x Yorkshire gilts entered in the herds between 1st Jan 2014 and 31st July 2016. Data was extracted from existing database on Dec 2018 and 15% of the sows were still active in the herds hence not included in the study. Descriptive statistics showed that out of the 20,009 removed sows, planned removals comprised of farrowing productivity (FP) 3,523 (17.6%) and old age (OA) 1,785 (8.9%) while unplanned removals consisted of reproductive failure (RF) 7,786 (38.9%), health problems (HP) 2,629 (13.1%), locomotion problems (LP) 1,473 (7.4%) and conformation issues (CI) 1,350 (6.8%).‘Did not conceive’ and “No heat” were observed as the main contributing factors accounting for 37.6% and 32.9% respectively for gilts &amp; sows removed by RF.13.5% of the gilts (Parity 0) were removed from the herds before attaining their first litter of which 64.1% of their removals was due to RF. Removal type consisted of slaughter (S) 85.0%, found dead on the farm (DoF) 10.8% and euthanized (E) 4.2%. The research findings depict an upward trend of sow RF removals in the US swine herds posing a serious concern for US swine producers. Characterization and quantification of sow removals gives a revelation on the deeper intrigues about the vulnerability of the various parity in respect to common causes of RF. This helps swine producers to decisively improve on gilt replacement selection, reproductive efficiency, health and nutrition management all aimed at increasing overall swine productivity and efficiency in management. Swine farmers in the US can now focus their efforts towards curbing unnecessary RF removal within parity specifics.

A case of mange infestation in a flock of pigs in Ebonyi State, Nigeria

On the 6th of July 2015, a swine farmer at Ikwo, Ebonyi State, reported a case of ‘’loss of hair coats, continuous scratching of their skins on fences, iron bars and pen floors, with resultant wounds on their surfaces. Skin scrapings from some of the pigs with gross skin lesions was taken for diagnosis. Digestion of suspected scraping materials with 10 % potassium hydroxide, then centrifugation followed by an examination of sediment under a microscope. Injuries seen are found in the ears, head, neck region, shoulders, leg and back region of those pigs. The lesions seen are reddening of the infested area, crusts, hyperkeratosis, and fall of hairs from the area with wrinkled, thickened, rough, raised and thick asbestos-like skin and pruritus. Microscopically the parasites seen appear approximately 500 μm long, with fingerprint-like striations on the cuticle, short and stubby legs, numerous setae and pegs, and with a dorsal patch of tooth-like spines. Treatment with Ivermectin 300mg/kg subcutaneously, stat and repeated at days 14 and Cypermethrin (pour-on) 10mL of 0.1% solution yielded tremendous improvement.Keywords: mange, pigs, Sarcoptic mange, Sarcoptes scabiei, Ivermectin

Windbreak Wall-Vegetative Strip System to Reduce Air Emissions from Mechanically Ventilated Livestock Barns—Part 3: Layer House Evaluation

Air emissions from animal feeding operations (AFOs) can affect public health, environment, and quality of life. Although regulations or lawsuits may force AFOs to reduce air emissions, treatment options are limited and expensive. Trapping particulate matter (PM) emitted from AFOs is important for reducing emissions since many odorous and environmentally important gases are also transported on PM. Since PM emitted by AFOs have relatively high particle density and diameter, its partial filtration might be feasible and effective in reducing air emission. A porous windbreak wall made of lumber and mosquito screen, coupled with a vegetative strip of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) covering three fans, was evaluated in a tunnel-ventilated swine finishing barn. The system imposed acceptable pressure on the fan (< 13 Pa) and was readily cleaned by rain. The system reduced total suspended particulate (TSP) emission moderately (average reduction of 28%), while reduction in ammonia emissions was low. Odor 10 m downstream of the fans was reduced greatly by 71%. Soil inside the system and vegetation accumulated appreciable amounts of nitrogen and sulfur; the vegetation also trapped appreciable amounts of PM. Overall, this low-cost, retrofittable, and modular system could be used by swine farmers to reduce their emissions, alone or in combination with other mitigation methods to obtain greater reduction in emissions.

Farmers using insurance and cooperatives to manage agricultural risks: A case study of the swine industry in China

Purchasing agricultural insurance and joining agricultural cooperatives are two prevalent instruments used by farmers in China for dealing with agricultural risks. Data from 443 swine farmers in Jiangsu and Henan provinces of China were collected. Factors affecting the farmers’ decision to purchase agricultural insurance and join agricultural cooperatives were assessed. The possibility of simultaneous use of both instruments and the potential correlation between these two decisions was considered as well. Results showed that the farmers’ decision to use agricultural insurance and cooperatives was positively correlated, indicating that farmers who purchased agricultural insurance which mainly used to mitigate production risks were more likely to join agricultural cooperatives which more used to share market risks, and vice versa. Farmers’ knowledge of swine insurance and trust in the local government positively impacted the purchase of agricultural insurance, while education, years involved in swine production and scale of swine production positively impacted farmers joining agricultural cooperatives.

Farmer preference for swine price index insurance

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine farmer preference for swine price index insurance in China focusing on whether Chinese farmers are willing to consider purchasing swine price index insurance, the premium they would like to pay, as well as the extend of heterogeneity in their preferences.Design/methodology/approachA sample of 443 swine farmers in Jiangsu and Henan provinces is collected and analyzed. An Ordered Probit model is used to analyze farmers’ willingness to buy swine price index insurance and a Tobit model is used to analyze farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for insurance premium.FindingsResults show that some farmers are not willing to purchase swine price index insurance. However, WTP of majority of farmers is higher than what is prescribed in the current insurance policy. Factors affecting farmers’ willingness to buy varied between two provinces. Experience in purchasing traditional swine insurance and risk perception affect farmers’ willingness to buy in Jiangsu province, while joining agricultural cooperatives, experience in purchasing traditional swine insurance and understanding of swine price index insurance affect farmers’ willingness to buy in Henan province. Farmers with non-agricultural income, longer years of swine breeding, higher degree of specialization, experience in purchasing traditional insurance, higher understanding of swine price index insurance and trust in local governments, stronger risk perception and risk preference, and not being a member of agricultural cooperatives have higher WTP.Originality/valueFew studies have been conducted on swine price index insurance in China. Even less information, to the authors’ knowledge, is available on farmer preferences. The research provides a timely contribution to understand the Chinese swine price index insurance market from the perspectives of farmers.

Hepatitis E virus infection in swine workers: A meta-analysis.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infects both humans and animals. Swine has been confirmed to be the principal natural reservoir, which raises a concern that HEV infection would be substantially increasing among swine workers. The present study calculated the pooled prevalence of IgG antibodies against HEV among swine workers and the general population in previous cross-sectional studies. We conducted a meta-analysis comparing the prevalence of HEV infection between swine workers and the general population, including local residents, blood donors and non-swine workers. Through searches in three databases (PubMed and OVID in English, and CNKI in Chinese) and after study selection, a total of 32 studies from 16 countries (from 1999 through 2018) were included in the meta-analysis. A random-effect model was employed in the study; an I 2 statistic assessed heterogeneity, and the Egger's test detected publication bias. The comparative prevalence of anti-HEV IgG was pooled from the studies. Compared to the general population, the prevalence ratio (PR) for swine workers was estimated to be 1.52 (95% CI 1.38-1.76) with the I 2 being 71%. No publication bias was detected (p=0.40). A subgroup analysis further indicated increased prevalence of anti-HEV IgG in the swine workers in Asia (PR=1.49, 95% CI: 1.35-1.64), in Europe (PR=1.93, 95% CI: 1.49-2.50) and in all five swine-related occupations, including swine farmers, butchers, meat processors, pork retailers and veterinarians (PR ranged between 1.19 and 1.75). In summary, swine workers have a relatively higher prevalence of past HEV infection, and this finding is true across swine-related occupations, which confirms zoonotic transmission between swine and swine workers.

PSVII-11 Survey of Disease, Management and Biosecurity Practices of Hawai`i Swine Farmers.

PSVII-11 Survey of Disease, Management and Biosecurity Practices of Hawai`i Swine Farmers.

JOINT BENCHMARKING AND ECO-EFFICIENCY FOR THE SUSTAINABLE PERFORMANCE OF SWINE PRODUCTION IN THAILAND

This research aimed to develop the sustainable performance of swine production through joint benchmarking and eco-efficiency. The economic and environmental performance of 15 swine farms in Thailand between 2011 and 2013 were evaluated by Gate to Gate sector boundary. The results showed that the highest and lowest values of eco-efficiency in the swine farming sector were feed and water consumption, respectively. Benchmarking of eco-efficiencies in all indicators demonstrated that best practice for swine farms was obtained with average feed consumption of 1 kg-head-day, average water consumption of 1.17 L/headday, use of renewable energy from biogas of 0.014 kWh/head-day, use of swine fever vaccination and anthelmintics, greenhouse gas emissions of 0.00875 ton CO2-eq/head-day and total amount of waste produced of 6.25 kg/head-day. Lastly, the sustainable development of a recommended approach for swine production in Thailand, which includes breeding selection, husbandry management, farm management and attendance, and the environmental management of farms was developed using material flow analysis concepts, in-depth interview and brainstorming with best practice swine farmers.

Occurrence of virulent multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium in the pigs, farmers and farm environments in Malaysia.

BackgroundEnterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium are ubiquitous opportunistic pathogens found in the guts of humans and farmed animals. This study aimed to determine the occurrence, antimicrobial resistance, virulence, biofilm-forming ability and genotypes of E. faecalis and E. faecium from swine farms. Correlations between the genotypes, virulotypes, antibiotic resistance, and the environmental factors such as locality of farms and farm hygiene practice were explored.MethodsE. faecalis and E. faecium strains were isolated from the oral, rectal and fecal samples of 140 pigs; nasal, urine and fecal samples of 34 farmers working in the farms and 42 environmental samples collected from seven swine farms located in Peninsular Malaysia. Antibiotic susceptibility test was performed using the disk diffusion method, and the antibiotic resistance and virulence genes were detected by Polymerase Chain Reaction. Repetitive Extragenic Palindromic-Polymerase Chain Reaction and Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis were performed to determine the clonality of the strains. Crosstab/Chi-square test and DistLM statistical analyses methods were used to determine the correlations between the genotypes, virulence factors, antibiotic resistance, and the environmental factors.ResultsA total of 211 E. faecalis and 42 E. faecium were recovered from 140 pigs, 34 farmers and 42 environmental samples collected from seven swine farms in Peninsular Malaysia. Ninety-eight percent of the strains were multidrug-resistant (resistant to chloramphenicol, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and erythromycin). Fifty-two percent of the strains formed biofilms. Virulence genes efa, asaI, gelE, esp, cyl and ace genes were detected. Virulence genes efa and asaI were most prevalent in E. faecalis (90%) and E. faecium (43%), respectively. Cluster analyses based on REP-PCR and PFGE showed the strains were genetically diverse. Overall, the strains isolated from pigs and farmers were distinct, except for three highly similar strains found in pigs and farmers. The strains were regional- and host-specific.DiscussionThis study revealed alarming high frequencies of multidrug-resistant enterococci in pigs and swine farmers. The presence of resistance and virulence genes and the ability to form biofilm further enhance the persistence and pathogenicity of the strains. Although the overall clonality of the strains were regionals and host-specific, strains with high similarity were found in different hosts. This study reiterates a need of a more stringent regulation to ensure the proper use of antibiotics in swine husbandry to reduce the wide spread of multidrug-resistant strains.

Biogas Production on a Small Swine Farm: Study of Prediction Using Different Models

The use of the biodigestion is considered promising for the energetic valorisation of the sewage produced in swine farms. It is necessary to provide farmers with technical information that encourages the adoption of this technology and gives adequate and accessible data for the implantation of biodigesters. There are some calculators developed in European countries and in the United States that use simple inputs such as the type of the farming, the manure generation (dry solids content), the animal waste (animal.kg/day) and the technology used for the biodigester. These calculators also give relevant outputs such as biogas and energy production. In Brazil, this kind of calculator is not diffused and the information of biogas and energy production are often provided from government agencies. In order to evaluate the accuracy of the prediction of biogas using this accessible information to swine farmers (relation between the quantity of pigs or waste produced and the potential of biogas production), the main objective of this work was to compare these results with models based on physical chemical parameters measured in the swine sewage (Volatile Solids and Chemical Oxygen Demand) and also compare it with the biogas produced in a lab-scale biodigester. Results showed the models based on physical chemical parameters and the model based on quantity of growing pigs were coherent with results provided by lab-scale biodigesters. Models based on the quantity of farrowing pigs and the estimation of manure produced by the animals in the farm presented results without compatibility with all the others.

Risk for interspecies transmission of zoonotic pathogens during poultry processing and pork production in Peru: A qualitative study.

Interspecies transmission of pathogens is an unfrequent but naturally occurring event and human activities may favour opportunities not previously reported. Reassortment of zoonotic pathogens like influenza A virus can result from these activities. Recently, swine and birds have played a central role as "mixing vessels" for epidemic and pandemic events related to strains like H1N1 and H5N1. Unsafe practices in poultry markets and swine farms can lead to interspecies transmission, favouring the emergence of novel strains. Thus, understanding practices that lead to interspecies interactions is crucial. This qualitative study aimed to evaluate poultry processing practices in formal and informal markets and the use of leftovers by swine farmers in three Peruvian cities: Lima (capital), Tumbes (coastal) and Tarapoto (jungle). We conducted 80 direct observations at formal and informal markets and interviewed 15 swine farmers. Processors slaughter and pluck chickens and vendors and/or processors eviscerate chickens. Food safety and hygiene practices were suboptimal or absent, although some heterogeneity was observed between cities and chicken vendors versus processors. Both vendors (76%) and processors (100%) sold the chicken viscera leftovers to swine farmers, representing the main source of chicken viscera for swine farms (53%). Swine farmers fed the chicken viscera to their swine. Chicken viscera cooking times varied widely and were insufficient in some cases. Non-abattoired poultry leads to the sale of poultry leftovers to small-scale swine farms, resulting in indirect but frequent interspecies contacts that can lead to interspecies transmission of bacterial pathogens or the reassortment of influenza A viruses. These interactions are exacerbated by suboptimal safety and hygiene conditions. People involved in these activities constitute an at-risk population who could play a central role in preventing the transmission of pathogens between species. Educational interventions on hygiene and food safety practices will be important for reducing the risk of interspecies influenza transmission.

Good vaccination practice: it all starts with a good vaccine storage temperature

BackgroundRecent introduction of strategies to reduce antibiotic use in food animal production implies an increased use of vaccines in order to prevent the economic impact of several important diseases in swine. Good Vaccination Practice (GVP) is an overall approach on the swine farm aiming to obtain maximal efficacy of vaccination through good storage, preparation and finally correct application to the target animals. In order to have a better insight into GVP on swine farms and the vaccine storage conditions, a survey on vaccination practices was performed on a farmers’ fair and temperatures in the vaccine storage refrigerators were measured during farm visits over a period of 1 year.ResultsThe survey revealed that knowledge on GVP, such as vaccine storage and handling, needle management and injection location could be improved. Less than 10% had a thermometer in their vaccine storage refrigerator on the moment of the visit. Temperature measurement revealed that only 71% of the measured refrigerators were in line with the recommended temperature range of +2 °C to +8 °C. Both below +2 °C and above +8 °C temperatures were registered during all seasons of the year. Compliance was lower during summer with an average temperature of 9.2 °C while only 43% of the measured temperatures were within the recommended range.ConclusionsThe present study clearly showed the need for continuous education on GVP for swine veterinarians, swine farmers and their farm personnel in general and vaccine storage management in particular. In veterinary medicine, the correct storage of vaccines is crucial since both too low and too high temperatures can provoke damage to specific vaccine types. Adjuvanted killed or subunit vaccines can be damaged (e.g. structure of aluminiumhydroxide in adjuvans) by too low temperatures (below 0 °C), whereas lyophilized live vaccines are susceptible (e.g. loss of vaccine potency) to heat damage by temperatures above +8 °C. In conclusion, knowledge and awareness of GVP and vaccine storage conditions are crucial under practical field conditions in swine herds. Focus on a correct on-farm vaccine storage is part of the responsible veterinarians’ guidance in order to obtain the required vaccine efficacy.