Sweet Food Intake Research Articles

Comparison of sweetness preference and motivational factors between Korean and Japanese children

Purpose: This study was performed to examine motivational factors affecting sweetness preference in Korean and Japanese children. We identified meaningful variables that could be targeted to nutrition education interventions designed to overcome innate barriers and reduce sweetness preference and sweet food intake in Korean and Japanese children. Methods: Questionnaire surveys and sweetness preference test were conducted to examine variables affecting behavioral intention (BI) regarding sweetness preference. Questionnaire variables were based on the theory of planned behavior. Participants were recruited from one urban school from each country. In total, 166 children (mean age: 8.4 years) and their guardians (n = 166) participated in the study. A trained research assistant provided all children with personal guidance regarding completion of the sweetness preference test and survey questionnaire at school. The data were analyzed using Pearsons correlation coefficients, t tests, repeated measure ANOVA, and stepwise multiple regression analysis (significance level: p < 0.05). Results: Perceived behavioral control (PBC) and parenting practice were significantly associated with BI in both groups. Motivation to comply affected BI only in Japanese children, whereas affective attitude was associated with BI only in Korean children. In predicting sweetness preference, BI was associated only in Japanese children, whereas sweets consumption frequency had a significant effect in Korean children. Conclusion: The study shows similarities and differences in motivational factors, which could be considered when developing nutrition education programs in Korea and Japan. PBC and parenting practice were common factors in predicting BI. In predicting sweetness preference, BI had a significant effect on Japanese children, whereas sweets consumption frequency was the greatest contributor in Korean children.

Estimating the effects of maternal education on child dental caries using marginal structural models: The Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Australian Children.

To estimate the effect of mothers' education on Indigenous Australian children's dental caries experience while controlling for the mediating effect of children's sweet food intake. The Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children is a study of two representative cohorts of Indigenous Australian children, aged from 6 months to 2 years (baby cohort) and from 3.5 to 5 years (child cohort) at baseline. The children's primary caregiver undertook a face-to-face interview in 2008 and repeated annually for the next 4 years. Data included household demographics, child health (nutrition information and dental health), maternal conditions and highest qualification levels. Mother's educational level was classified into four categories: 0-9 years, 10 years, 11-12 years and >12 years. Children's mean sweet food intake was categorized as <20%, 20-30%, and >30%. After multiple imputation of missing values, a marginal structural model with stabilized inverse probability weights was used to estimate the direct effect of mothers' education level on children's dental decay experience. From 2008 to 2012, complete data on 1720 mother-child dyads were available. Dental caries experience for children was 42.3% over the 5-year period. The controlled direct effect estimates of mother's education on child dental caries were 1.21 (95% CI: 1.01-1.45), 1.03 (95% CI: 0.91-1.18) and 1.07 (95% CI: 0.93-1.22); after multiple imputation of missing values, the effects were 1.21 (95% CI: 1.05-1.39), 1.06 (95% CI: 0.94-1.19) and 1.06 (95% CI: 0.95-1.19), comparing '0-9', '10' and '11-12' years to > 12 years of education. Mothers' education level had a direct effect on children's dental decay experience that was not mediated by sweet food intake and other risk factors when estimated using a marginal structural model.

Estradiol, SHBG and leptin interplay with food craving and intake across the menstrual cycle

ObjectiveTo understand the association between ovarian hormones, non-acute satiety hormones and craving calorie dense foods in the luteal phase. Methods17 premenopausal women, mean age 23.2 y, mean BMI 22.4kg/m2 with regular menstrual cycles were studied during late follicular (FP) and luteal phases (LP). Estradiol, progesterone, DHEAS, SHBG, insulin and leptin, were measured in fasting samples. The validated Food Craving Inventory was used to record the types of foods volunteers habitually ate – rich in fat, carbohydrate or sweet taste, as well as craved during the LP of their menstrual cycle. ResultsEstradiol was inversely associated with leptin in FP (r=−0.62, p=0.01). Leptin was inversely associated with habitual intake of sweet foods, in both phases (FP: r=−0.64, p=0.01; LP: r=−0.63, p=0.01). SHBG in LP was positively associated with craving sweet and carbohydrate rich foods. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed two groups of women, one with high estradiol, high estradiol/leptin ratio, high sweet and carbohydrate cravings (p<0.05); the other group had lower estradiol, lower estradiol/leptin ratio, and reported less craving. ConclusionsThe estradiol-leptin axis may be a determinant of luteal phase craving and habitual food intake in menstruating women.Clinical Trial Registration Number: NCT01407692

Association of TAS2R38 variants with sweet food intake in children aged 1–6 years

We aimed at studying whether genetic variants of the TAS2R38 gene are associated with energy intake from sweet tasting foods, total energy and macronutrient intake and body weight in children.Children (n = 691) from five European countries were genotyped for the first variant site rs713598 of the TAS2R38 bitter receptor gene. Three-day dietary records were obtained yearly from one to six years of age. Foods were categorized in sweet and non-sweet-tasting. Mixed models were used to describe group differences in food and nutrient intake and BMI z-score over time.TAS2R38 genotype was related to energy intake from sweet tasting foods: Children with PP and PA genotype consumed an average 83 kJ/d (95% CI 21 to 146; p = 0.009) more sweet tasting foods than children with AA genotype and a mean 56 kJ/d (95% CI 15 to 98; p = 0.007) more energy from energy dense sweet products. Intake of sweet tasting foods was lower in girls than boys and differed between countries. TAS2R38 genotype was not associated with the intake of energy, macronutrients, sugar, single food groups and BMI z-score.Despite many other factors influencing food preference and intake in children, actual intake of sweet food items is associated with TAS2R38 genotype. Children with PP or PA genotype consume more (energy dense) sweet tasting foods.

Menstrual cycle hormones, food intake, and cravings

ObjectiveFood craving and intake are affected by steroid hormones during the menstrual cycle, especially in the luteal phase, when craving for certain foods has been reported to increase. However, satiety hormones such as leptin have also been shown to affect taste sensitivity, and therefore food choices. While in vitro studies have reported that estradiol can stimulate leptin release, some human studies have shown that leptin is inversely associated with estradiol. On the contrary, progesterone has been positively associated with leptin, and therefore may play a significant role in food intake regulation. Our objective was to characterize the associations between sex steroid hormones, leptin and food intake behavior.MethodsSeventeen healthy, women with regular menstrual cycles, 23.2 ± 4.8 y, and BMI 22.4 ±1.9 kg/m2 were studied during their late follicular and luteal phases. Estradiol, progesterone, DHEAS, SHBG, leptin and insulin were measured in fasting samples. In addition, volunteers were asked to answer validated “Food Craving inventory” (FCI) and “Carbohydrate Rich Food intake” (CRFI) questionnaires at the start of the study. The FCI captured information regarding the types of foods volunteers were craving – rich in fat, carbohydrate or sweet taste, followed by beverages and fast foods over a three month period prior to starting the study. The CFRI captured information with regard to consumption of these same foods. We used Pearson's correlation coefficients to identify positive or inverse associations between hormones and subjective food intake and craving scores.ResultsEstradiol, progesterone and leptin were not associated with each other. However, women with higher estradiol during the luteal phase reported consuming more carbohydrate‐rich foods in the past three months (r = 0.5174; p = 0.034), while also reporting increased craving for sweet foods (r = 0.4922; p = 0.045). Higher progesterone in the luteal phase was weakly associated with higher craving for sweetened beverages (r = 0.4723, p = 0.056). As expected, leptin was inversely associated with reported consumption of sweet tasting foods (r = −0.5071; p = 0.038), while also being inversely associated with craving fat rich foods (r = −0.4851; p = 0.048).ConclusionsEstradiol is associated with increased carbohydrate rich food intake, while progesterone with craving sweetened beverage intake. Leptin, while being associated with reduced craving for fat‐rich food, and reduced sweet food intake, however, appears to not be associated with estradiol and progesterone, thereby suggesting that the female sex steroid hormones may be independent influences on food intake behaviors. Understanding the changes of estradiol, progesterone and leptin in women could clinically aid in advocating food choices during the pre‐menstrual phase.Support or Funding InformationUSDA projects #2032‐51530‐022 and #5306‐51530‐019

Parental control and overconsumption of snack foods in overweight and obese children

The associations between snack food consumption, parent feeding practices and general parenting in overweight in obese children are largely unknown. Therefore, we examined these relationships in 117 treatment-seeking overweight and obese children (10.40 ± 1.35 years; 53% female; 52% Caucasian; BMI-z: 2.06 ± .39). Children consumed a dinner meal, completed an Eating in the Absence of Hunger (EAH) free access paradigm (total EAH intake = EAH%-total; sweet food intake = EAH%-sweet), and completed the Child Report of Parent Behavior Inventory. Parents completed the Child Feeding Questionnaire. Child EAH%-total and EAH%-sweet were positively associated with dinner consumption (p's < .01). Girls had significantly higher EAH%-total compared to boys (p < .05). In separate models, higher EAH%-total was associated with greater use of maternal psychological control (p < .05) and EAH%-sweet was positively associated with parent monitoring (p < .05). In analyses examining factors associated with the consumption of specific foods, EAH snack food, parent restriction, pressure to eat, monitoring, and maternal psychological control were positively correlated with intake of Hershey's® chocolate bars (p's < .05). In summary, parental monitoring is associated with child sweet snack food intake and maternal psychological control is associated with child total snack food consumption. Future research should evaluate the complex relationship between child eating and parenting, especially with regard to subgroups of foods.

No difference in compensation for sugar in a drink versus sugar in semi-solid and solid foods

It is claimed that sugar consumed in a drink is poorly compensated for by a reduction in subsequent energy intake, however very little research has tested directly the effect on appetite of adding sugar to a drink versus food. In this between subjects study, 144 participants (72 men) consumed preloads sweetened with either sucrose or the low-energy sweetener, sucralose (preload energy difference 162kcal) in the form of a blackcurrant drink, jelly or candy. The different preload viscosities were achieved by varying the amount of thickener (carrageenan) and water in the recipes. Participants completed hunger ratings before and 5, 10 and 20min after consuming their preload. After the 20-minute rating they were served a test-meal comprising an excess of bite-sized sandwiches and a sweet dessert. Energy intake measured for the same meal consumed the previous day (baseline day, no preload consumed) was used in the data analyses to control for individual differences in energy intake. Overall, there was 36% compensation for the energy difference in the preloads, but this did not vary with preload viscosity — if anything compensation was greater for the drink preload, and greater in men. The drink preload also showed an effect of sucrose versus sucralose for hunger. The lack of the predicted effect of viscosity on compensation could not be explained by differences in blood-glucose concentration 20min after the preload (measured in a separate study) or by differences in preload sweetness, flavour intensity, liking or familiarity. Comparison of baseline and test-meal food intakes indicated that, irrespective of energy content, the sweet drinks reduced the relative intake of sweet food. In conclusion, short-term energy compensation did not differ across a set of realistic drink and food stimuli.

The effects of nicotine self-administration and withdrawal on concurrently available chow and sucrose intake in adult male rats

Carbohydrate intake, preference, and taste thresholds may be altered in current and former cigarette smokers, which may mediate weight gain and risk for obesity in individuals who quit smoking. Attempts to model these effects in rodents have primarily used noncontingent nicotine administration. The purpose of this research was to characterize changes in chow and sucrose intake in rats during a 23-h access model of i.v. nicotine self-administration (NSA), in which rats lever-pressed for chow, sucrose, and nicotine under concurrent fixed-ratio (FR) 1 schedules. Male rats were assigned to one of three groups that differed in food and drug availability. The Nicotine C+S group had concurrent access to nicotine, chow, and sucrose. The Saline C+S group had access to saline, chow, and sucrose. The Nicotine C-Only group had access to nicotine and chow, but not sucrose. Changes in food intake and weight gain were assessed during baseline, NSA, and nicotine withdrawal (i.e., saline extinction). Weight gain was significantly slowed during NSA and increased during withdrawal, but did not differ between the nicotine groups. NSA produced a significant decrease in both chow and sucrose intake. Gradual tolerance to nicotine's effects on sucrose, but not chow intake, occurred. During withdrawal, chow and sucrose intake increased, with a larger percent increase in sucrose intake compared to chow. The proportion of total food intake from sucrose was greater at the end of withdrawal compared to baseline, indicating a history of nicotine intake changed dietary preference. Combined, these results indicate that sucrose intake is more resistant to nicotine's appetite suppressant effects and withdrawal from nicotine produces a greater increase in sweet food intake alongside general increases in chow intake. Changes in overall food intake in current and ex-smokers may lead to increased risk for obesity and other health problems, potentially limiting the benefit of quitting smoking.

External eating mediates the relationship between impulsivity and unhealthy food intake

Recent evidence from the eating domain shows a link between impulsivity and unhealthy food intake. However, the mechanism underlying this relationship remains unclear. One possibility is an external eating style, which has been linked to both impulsivity and food intake. The current study investigated the potential mediating role of external eating in the relationship between impulsivity and food intake. Participants were 146 undergraduate women who completed measures of impulsivity and external eating, and took part in a laboratory taste test as a behavioural index of unhealthy snack food intake. It was found that attentional and motor impulsivity interacted in predicting sweet food intake, but only motor impulsivity predicted both external eating and sweet food intake. Furthermore, the relationship between motor impulsivity and food intake was mediated by external eating. These findings support the development of interventions aimed at targeting specific aspects of impulsivity in order to reduce unhealthy eating behaviour.

Increased palatable food intake and response to food cues in intrauterine growth-restricted rats are related to tyrosine hydroxylase content in the orbitofrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is associated with altered food preferences, which may contribute to increased risk of obesity. We evaluated the effects of IUGR on attention to a palatable food cue, as well as tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) content in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and nucleus accumbens (NAcc) in response to sweet food intake. From day 10 of gestation and through lactation, Sprague–Dawley rats received either an ad libitum (Adlib) or a 50% food-restricted (FR) diet. At birth, pups were cross-fostered, generating four groups (gestation/lactation): Adlib/Adlib (control), FR/Adlib (intrauterine growth-restricted), Adlib/FR, and FR/FR. Adult attention to palatable food cues was measured using the Attentional Set-Shifting Task (ASST), which uses a sweet pellet as reward. TH content in the OFC and NAcc was measured at baseline and in response to palatable food intake. At 90 days of age, FR/Adlib males ate more sweet food than controls, without differences in females. However, when compared to Controls, FR/Adlib females needed fewer trials to reach criterion in the ASST (p=0.04) and exhibited increased TH content in the OFC in response to sweet food (p=0.03). In the NAcc, there was a differential response of TH content after sweet food intake in both FR/Adlib males and females (p<0.05). Fetal programming of adult food preferences involves the central response to palatable food cues and intake, affecting dopamine release in select structures of the brain reward system.

Impact of physical activity on energy balance, food intake and choice in normal weight and obese children in the setting of acute social stress: a randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundPsychological stress negatively influences food intake and food choices, thereby contributing to the development of childhood obesity. Physical activity can also moderate eating behavior and influence calorie intake. However, it is unknown if acute physical activity influences food intake and overall energy balance after acute stress exposure in children. We therefore investigated the impact of acute physical activity on overall energy balance (food intake minus energy expenditure), food intake, and choice in the setting of acute social stress in normal weight (NW) and overweight/obese (OW/OB) children as well as the impact of psychological risk factors.MethodAfter receiving written consent from their parents, 26 NW (BMI < 90th percentile) and 24 7-to 11-year-old OW (n = 5)/OB (n = 19, BMI ≥ 90th percentile) children were randomly allocated using computer-generated numbers (1:1, after stratification for weight status) to acute moderate physical or to sedentary activity for 30 min. Afterwards, all children were exposed to an acute social stressor. Children and their parents completed self-report questionnaires. At the end of the stressor, children were allowed to eat freely from a range of 12 different foods (6 sweet/6 salty; each of low/high caloric density). Energy balance, food intake/choice and obesity-related psychological risk factors were assessed.ResultsLower overall energy balance (p = 0.019) and a decreased choice of low density salty foods (p < 0.001) in NW children compared with OW/OB children was found after acute moderate physical activity but not sedentary activity. Independent of their allocation, OW/OB children ate more high density salty foods (104 kcal (34 to 173), p = 0.004) following stress. They scored higher on impulsive behavior (p = 0.005), restrained eating (p < 0.001) and parental corporal punishment (p = 0.03), but these psychological factors were not related to stress-induced food intake/choice. Positive parenting tended to be related to lower intake of sweet high density food (−132 kcal, −277 to 2, p = 0.054).ConclusionsIn the setting of stress, acute moderate physical activity can address energy balance in children, a benefit which is especially pronounced in the OW/OB. Positive parenting may act as a protective factor preventing stress-induced eating of comfort food.Trial registrationclinicaltrials.gov NCT01693926The study was a pilot study of a project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (CRSII3_147673).

Risk Factors for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in the Population of Western China

Objective: We aim to explore the risk factors of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in the population of western China. Methods: We conducted a prospective cohort study which recruited 908 pregnant females, who were registered in West China Second Hospital of Sichuan University from January 1st to December 31st in 2011. Self-designed questionnaires were used to collect related clinical data. The pregnancies were followed up until 42 days postpartum. We analyzed the data with Mann-Whitney U test, Chi-Square Test, logistic regression analysis and rank correlation coefficient analysis. Results: Univariate analysis of the data showed that maternal age, leg-to-height percentage, body mass index (BMI) before pregnancy, delivery history, dietary history, family histories of diabetes mellitus (DM), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) carrier status, serum triglyceride and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels at first trimester are closely correlated with the incidence of GDM. In addition, logistic regression analysis showed that age (OR=1.081, 95% CI 1.027~1.138), unbalanced diet (OR=3.329, 95% CI 2.167~5.116), fruit intake (OR=2.005, 95% CI 1.447~2.780), fondness for sweet food (OR=1.604, 95% CI 1.129~2.280), pre-pregnancy BMI (OR=1.095, 95% CI 1.008~1.190), gravidity (OR=1.263, 95% CI 1.107~1.442), HBsAg carrier status (OR=3.173, 95% CI 1.387~7.260), family histories of DM (OR=1.798, 95% CI 1.063~3.041), high serum triglyceride level (OR=1.315, 95% CI 1.117~1.548) and HbA1c (OR=10.272, 95% CI 4.719~22.363) are correlated with GDM. Furthermore, bivariate correlation analysis showed that age and pre-pregnancy BMI are positively correlated with the fasting, 1-hour, and 2- hour results of 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) while leg-to-height percentage is negatively correlated with the 2-h result of 75 g OGTT. Conclusion: Advanced maternal age, multigravidity, high pre-pregnancy BMI, low leg-to-height percentage, HBsAg-positive status, matrilineal history of DM, unbalanced diet, high fruit intake, high sweet food intake, and high serum triglyceride and HbA1c levels are risk factors for GDM in western Chinese population.

Association of Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Intake during Infancy with Dental Caries in 6-year-olds.

To examine whether sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake during infancy is associated with dental caries by age 6, a longitudinal analysis of 1,274 U.S. children was conducted using data from the 2005-2007 Infant Feeding Practices Study II and the 2012 Follow-up Study at 6 years of age. The exposure variables were maternal-reported SSB intakes during infancy (i.e., any SSB intake during infancy, age at SSB introduction during infancy, and average frequency of SSB intake during 10-12 months of age). The outcome variable was maternal-reported dental caries of their 6-year-old in his/her lifetime. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) for associations of SSB intake during infancy with having dental caries among 6-year-olds after controlling for baseline characteristics of children and mothers and child's tooth brushing habits and sweet food intake at follow-up. Based on maternal recall, almost 40% of 6-year-olds had dental caries in their lifetime. Adjusted odds of having dental caries was significantly associated with higher frequency of SSB intake during 10-12 months (aOR=1.83 for ≥3 times/week, vs. none). Any SSB intake during infancy and age at SSB introduction during infancy were not associated with dental caries. In conclusion, frequent SSB intake during 10-12 months of age significantly increased the likelihood of having dental caries among 6-year-olds. Late infancy may be an important time for mothers to establish healthy beverage practices for their children. These findings can be used to inform efforts to reduce dental caries among children.

Genetic variation in the hTAS2R38 taste receptor and food consumption among Finnish adults.

Genetic variation in bitter taste receptors, such as hTAS2R38, may affect food preferences and intake. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between bitter taste receptor haplotypes and the consumption of vegetables, fruits, berries and sweet foods among an adult Finnish population. A cross-sectional design utilizing data from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns cohort from 2007, which consisted of 1,903 men and women who were 30–45 years of age from five different regions in Finland, was employed. DNA was extracted from blood samples, and hTAS2R38 polymorphisms were determined based on three SNPs (rs713598, rs1726866 and rs10246939). Food consumption was assessed with a validated food frequency questionnaire. The prevalence of the bitter taste-sensitive (PAV/PAV) haplotype was 11.3 % and that of the insensitive (AVI/AVI) haplotype was 39.5 % among this Finnish population. PAV homozygotic women consumed fewer vegetables than did the AVI homozygotic women, 269 g/day (SD 131) versus 301 g/day (SD 187), respectively, p = 0.03 (multivariate ANOVA). Furthermore, the intake of sweet foods was higher among the PAV homozygotes of both genders. Fruit and berry consumption did not differ significantly between the haplotypes in either gender. Individuals perceive foods differently, and this may influence their patterns of food consumption. This study showed that the hTAS2R38 taste receptor gene variation was associated with vegetable and sweet food consumption among adults in a Finnish population.

The Interplay of Gender, Mood, and Stress Hormones in the Association between Emotional Eating and Dietary behavior

The Interplay of Gender, Mood, and Stress Hormones in the Association between Emotional Eating and Dietary behavior

Consumption of sweet foods and mammographic breast density: a cross-sectional study.

BackgroundThe increasing consumption of sugar worldwide seems to lead to several health problems, including some types of cancer. While some studies reported a positive association between sweet foods intake and breast cancer risk, little is known about their relation to mammographic density (MD), a strong breast cancer risk factor. This study examined the association of sweet foods and drinks intake with MD among 776 premenopausal and 779 postmenopausal women recruited at mammography.MethodsA food-frequency questionnaire was used to assess intake of sweet foods, sugar-sweetened beverages and spoonsful of sugar added. Percent and absolute breast density were estimated using a computer-assisted method. Multivariate generalized linear models were used to evaluate associations. All models were adjusted for potential confounders, including age and body mass index.ResultsFor increasing quartiles of sugar-sweetened beverages intake, adjusted-mean absolute density was respectively 32, 34, 32 and 36 cm2 among all women (Ptrend = 0.040) and 43, 46, 44 and 51 cm2 among premenopausal women (Ptrend = 0.007). For increasing quartiles of sweet foods intake, adjusted-mean percent density was respectively 16, 16, 17 and 19% among postmenopausal women (Ptrend = 0.036). No association was shown between intake of spoonsful of sugar added and MD.ConclusionOur results suggest that an increase in sweet foods or sugar-sweetened beverage intake is associated with higher MD.

Case-control study on the associations between lifestyle-behavioral risk factors and phlegm-wetness constitution

ObjectiveTo explore the relationships between different lifestyle-behavioral factors and phlegm-wetness type of Traditional Chinese Medicine constitution, so as to provide health management strategies for phlegm-wetness constitution. MethodsA case-control study was conducted with the cases selected from the database of Chinese constitution survey in 9 provinces or municipalities of China. 1380 cases met the diagnostic criteria of phlegm-wetness type were taken as the case group, and 1380 cases were randomly selected from gentleness type as the control group. Using Chi-square test to compare the differences of lifestyle-behavior composition in each group; single factor and multiple logistic regression analysis were used to compare the relationships of lifestyle-behavioral factors and phlegm-wetness type. ResultsThere were statistically significant differences between phlegm-wetness type group and gentleness type group in lifestyle behaviors (dietary habits, tobacco and liquor consumptions, exercise habits, sleeping habits). The results of single factor logistic regression analysis demonstrated that the risk of phlegm-wetness constitution decreased significantly in light diet (odds ratio, OR= 0.68); The risk factors of phlegm-wetness type were fatty food intake (OR=2.36), sleeping early and getting up late (OR=1.87), tobacco smoking (OR=1.83), barbecued food intake (OR=1.68), alcohol drinking (OR=1.63), salty food intake (OR=1.44), sleeping erratically (OR=1.43), less physical activities (OR= 1.42), sweet food intake (OR=1.29), sleeping and getting up late (OR=1.26), and pungent food intake (OR=1.21), respectively. Regardless of the interaction among lifestyle-behavioral factors, the results of the multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that the risk factors of phlegm-wetness type were sleeping early and getting up late (OR=1.94), fatty food intake (OR=1.80), tobacco smoking (OR=1.50), sleeping erratically (OR=1.50), barbecued food intake (OR=1.40), sleeping and getting up late (OR= 1.40), less physical activities (OR=1.31), sleeping late and getting up early (OR=1.27), and sweet food intake (OR=1.27), respectively, and the risk of phlegm-wetness type still decreased significantly in light food intake (OR=0.79). ConclusionLight diet can decrease the risk of being phlegm-wetness constitution, and bad lifestyle behaviors such as sleeping early and getting up late, sleeping erratically, fatty food, barbecued food or sweet food intake, tobacco and liquor consumptions, and less physical activities can increase the risks of becoming phlegm-wetness constitution.

Neonatal Overfeeding Induced by Reducing the Litter Size Leads to an Obese Phenotype and Increases Preference for Sweet Food in Adult Male Rats

Aim: the aim of this study was to induce obesity in rats using the neonatal overfeeding protocol and evaluate in adult male animals standard chow intake, sweet food intake, the preference between sweet food and standard chow, locomotor activity and anxiety-like behavior. Methodology: The neonatal overfeeding protocol consisted of reducing the litter size to 4 animals (small litters = SL) compared to 8 animals in normal litters (NL). In these experiments we used 55 offspring from 18 litters. Results: obesity was successfully induced as observed by increased body weight and Original Research Article British Journal of Medicine & Medical Research, 4(4): 957-968, 2014 958 depots of abdominal fat in SL animals compared to NL; [F(1, 53)=15.018; P<.001] for body weight and [t(48.06)=2.186 P=.03] for abdominal fat.No difference between groups was found in standard chow [t (16)=1.843 P=.08] and sweet food intake [t(53)=0.453 P=.65], however in the test that evaluated the preference between both foods SL animals consumed more sweet food than NL [t(48) =2.481 P=.02]. Additionally, there was no difference between groups regarding locomotor activity [t(52)=0.073 P=.94] but SL animals showed reduced anxiety-like behavior compared to NL [t(39.36)=2.205 P=.03]. Conclusion: this study supports the use of neonatal overfeeding protocol as a model of early obesity and showed for the first time the increased preference for sweet food in adult neonatal overfed animals.

Comparative Evaluation of the Effect of Menstruation, Pregnancy and Menopause on Salivary Flow Rate, pH and Gustatory Function.

There are five situations in a women's life during which hormone fluctuations make them more susceptible to oral health problems - during puberty, at certain points in the monthly menstrual cycle, when using birth control pills, during pregnancy, and at menopause. The present study aimed at evaluating the effect of menstruation, pregnancy and menopause on salivary flow rate, pH and gustatory function. The study was carried out on 120 patients including 30 controls (with normal menstrual cycle of 28 to 30 d) and 90 cases (30 patients within three days of menstruation, 30 pregnant and 30 postmenopausal). Paraffin-stimulated saliva samples were obtained by expectoration to calculate salivary flow rate, pH was measured electrometically and patients were prospectively evaluated for gustatory function. Then, whole mouth taste test was performed in which the quality identification and intensity ratings of taste solutions were measured. No statistically significant difference was found between the groups with respect to salivary flow rate but pH values were significantly lower in post menopausal women (p<0.05). Regarding correct quality identification the results were non-significant. Intensity for taste perception for sucrose was significantly lower in postmenopausal women than intensity of taste perception for other tastes (p<0.05). Also, postmenopausal women reported change in their dietary habits as all of them expressed liking for sweeter food. Reduced salivary flow rate and pH in postmen-opausal women may make them more prone to the occurrence of oral health problems. Also, pregnant and postmenopausal women appeared to have a reduced perception of sucrose, which can alter eating habits, such as intake of more sweet foods whereas no significant difference is observed in taste perception of NaCl, citric acid and quinine hydrochloride between the subjects.

Sweet food improves chronic stress-induced irritable bowel syndrome-like symptoms in rats.

To investigate whether palatable sweet foods have a beneficial effect on chronic stress-induced colonic motility and inflammatory cytokines. Adult male rats were divided into 3 groups: control (CON, n = 5), chronic variable stress with chow (CVS-A, n = 6), and chronic variable stress with chow and sweet food (CVS-B, n = 6). The rats were fed standard rodent chow as the chow food and/or AIN-76A as the sweet food. A food preference test for AIN-76A was performed in another group of normal rats (n = 10) for twelve days. Fecal pellet output (FPO) was measured for 6 wk during water bedding stress in the CVS groups. The weight of the adrenal glands, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone levels in plasma were measured. The expression levels of transforming growth factor-β, interleukin (IL)-2, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) were measured in the distal part of colonic tissues and plasma using Western blot analysis. In sweet preference test, all rats initially preferred sweet food to chow food. However, the consumption rate of sweet food gradually decreased and reduced to below 50% of total intake eight days after sweet food feeding. Accumulated FPO was higher in the CVS-A group compared with the CVS-B group over time. All stress groups showed significant increases in the adrenal to body weight ratio (CVS-A, 0.14 ± 0.01; CVS-B, 0.14 ± 0.01) compared with the control group (0.12 ± 0.01, P < 0.05). The plasma corticosterone and ACTH levels were significantly higher in the CVS-A (537.42 ± 32.95, 44.44 ± 6.54 pg/mL) and CVS-B (655.07 ± 30.82, 65.46 ± 4.44 pg/mL) groups than in the control group (46.96 ± 13.29, 8.51 ± 1.35 pg/mL, P < 0.05). Notably, the ratio of corticosterone to ACTH was significantly increased in the CVS-A group only. Rats exposed to CVS displayed significantly increased expression of IL-2 and IFN-γ in the plasma and distal colon compared to the control group, whereas this effect was significantly attenuated in the CVS-B group. These results suggest that concurrent sweet food ingestion during CVS might have an effect on the reduction of stress-induced colonic hyper-motility and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in rats.