Swedish Legislation Research Articles

GENDER EQUALITY MECHANISMS IN FINLAND AND SWEDEN

The publication is devoted to the analysis of the legal policy of gender equality in Finland and Sweden. Thechoice of countries is not accidental, since these states show impressive results in the effective developmentand implementation of legal policies in the field of gender equality.The authors show that in Finland the minimization and leveling of gender asymmetry is supported by thenational quota system. This approach is aimed at comprehensively ensuring a gender-neutral configurationof social practices. Such a humanistic trajectory of the policy of gender equality finds consolidation at thelevel of special legislation. It has been established that the positive experience of dealing with discriminatory factors is characteristicof modern Sweden. The very concept and term “discrimination” is clearly formulated and defined at the levelof regulatory regulation. The Swedish legislator also specifies the manifestations and forms of discriminatoryactions. The legal system of this state is replete with acts and all kinds of documents that are designed toprovide equal opportunities for representatives of each sex.

Discrimination in an “equal country”—a survey amongst Swedish final-year medical students

BackgroundDiscrimination due to gender and ethnicity has been found to be widespread in medicine and healthcare. Swedish and European legislation list seven discrimination grounds (age, sex, ethnicity, religion, sexuality, non-binary gender identity, and disability) which may intersect with each other; yet these have only been sparsely researched. The aim of this study was to assess the extent of discrimination, based on these seven discrimination grounds, amongst final-year medical students in Sweden.MethodsA web-based survey, based on the CHERRIES-checklist, was disseminated to course coordinators and program directors in charge of final year medical students at all seven medical schools in Sweden. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Fisher’s exact test, and logistic regression. Free-text answers were analyzed thematically using the “Master Suppression techniques” conceptual framework.ResultsOf the 1298 medical students contacted, 247 (19%) took part in the survey. Almost half (n = 103, 42%) had experienced some form of discrimination, and this difference was statistically significant by gender (p = 0.012), self-perceived ethnicity (p < 0.001), country of birth other than Scandinavia (p < 0.001) and visible religious signs (p = 0.037). The most common type of discrimination was gender-based (in 83% of students who had experienced discrimination), followed by age (48%), and ethnicity (42%). In the logistic regression, women/non-binary gender (p = 0.001, OR 2.44 [95% CI 1.41–4.22]), country of birth not in Scandinavia (p < 0.001, OR 8.05 [2.69–24.03]), non-Caucasian ethnicity (p = 0.04, OR 2.70 [1.39–5.27]), and disability (p = 0.02, OR 13.8 [1.58–12040]) were independently associated with discrimination. Half of those who had experienced religion-based discrimination and nearly one-third of victims of ethnicity-based discrimination reported “large” or “extreme” impact of this. Clinical staff or supervisors were the most common offenders (34%), closely followed by patients and their relatives (30%), with non-Caucasian respondents significantly more likely to experience discrimination by patients (p < 0.001).ConclusionsDiscrimination appears to be frequent in medical school, even in one of the world’s “most equal countries”. Discrimination is most commonly gender- or ethnicity-based, with ethnicity- and religion-based discrimination appearing to have the largest impact. Future research should continue to evaluate discrimination from an intersectional perspective, adapted for local contexts and legislations.

Occupational cold exposure in relation to incident airway symptoms in northern Sweden: a prospective population-based study

ObjectiveTo determine if occupational exposure to cold environments is associated with incident airway symptoms in previously healthy workers.MethodsA prospective, survey-based, closed-cohort study was conducted on a sample of 5017 men and women between 18 and 70 years of age, living in northern Sweden. Data on occupation, occupational and leisure-time cold exposure, airway symptoms, general health, and tobacco habits were collected during the winters of 2015 (baseline) and 2021 (follow-up). Stepwise multiple logistic regression was used to determine associations between baseline variables and incident airway symptoms.ResultsFor individuals working at baseline, without physician-diagnosed asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, reporting any occupational cold exposure was associated with incident wheeze (OR 1.41; 95% CI 1.06–1.87) and incident productive cough (OR 1.37; 95% CI 1.06–1.77), but not incident long-standing cough (OR 0.98; 95% CI 0.74–1.29), after adjusting for age, body mass index, daily smoking, and occupational physical workload. Detailed analysis of the occupational cold exposure rating did not reveal clear exposure–response patterns for any of the outcomes.ConclusionsOccupational cold exposure was robustly associated with incident wheeze and productive cough in previously healthy workers. This adds further support to the notion that cold air is harmful for the airways, and that a structured risk assessment regarding occupational cold exposure could be considered for inclusion in the Swedish workplace legislation. Further studies are needed to elaborate on exposure–response functions, as well as suggest thresholds for hazardous cold exposure.

The Essence and Content of the Principle of Gender Equality in the Texts of Normative Legal Acts of the Scandinavian Countries

The article is devoted to the study of the category of "gender equality" in the system of some normative legal acts of the Scandinavian countries. The purpose of the work is to show the effectiveness of legal regulation and ensuring the principle of gender equality in the legal policy of this group of states. Guided by the hermeneutic methodology, the authors came to the conclusion that the positive experience of dealing with discriminatory factors is characteristic of modern Sweden. The very concept and term "discrimination" is clearly formulated and defined at the level of regulatory regulation. The Swedish legislator also specifies the manifestations and forms of discriminatory actions.&#x0D; The publication shows that in Norway one has to observe the concept of establishing specialized government structures. The Norwegian Ministry of Children and Family Affairs includes a special department for gender equality. All this objectively contributes to the effective construction and promotion of true equality for both sexes.&#x0D; It was established that acting in accordance with other Scandinavian countries, the Danish legislator adopted a special law “On gender equality”. The content of the concept of gender equality, as follows from the text of this document, includes the principle of equal social integration, and is inextricably linked with the concept of equal influence of men and women and their equal opportunities in all spheres of society&#x0D; It is also emphasized that the content and essence of the principle of gender equality in the legislation of Norway, Sweden and Denmark is directly related to such categories as "women's rights", "prohibition of discrimination", "equal social integration" and "equality of men and women".&#x0D;

“That’s how we were raised”

Since July 1st, 2020, honour is viewed as an aggravating circumstance in criminal cases in Sweden, and it is suggested that honour related violence and oppression should become a criminal offence in its own right. Interventions directed towards victims of honour crimes have been implemented, but fewer have targeted the offenders. The purpose of this article is to mirror the Swedish legal and discursive framework against the perspective of the perpetrators. While we discuss findings with relevance for practitioners, particularly in the light of recent legislative changes, our main focus is set on subjective understandings of honour crimes. In particular, questions about the perpetrators’ norms and worldviews, their perceptions of the concept of honour, and their experiences of the Swedish justice system are investigated. Using court verdicts and deep interviews, we highlight important themes under the following four headlines: (1) Collectivism, norms, and traditions, (2) Complexities of honour crimes, (3) Marginalization, social vulnerability, and stereotyping, and (4) Reflections in retrospect. This article gives insight into some of the complexities that courts will have to handle given the recent and pending changes in Swedish legislation and provides knowledge that can be implemented in social and legal work to combat honour related violence and oppression.

Fertility preservation and fertility treatment in transgender adolescents and adults in a Swedish region, 2013-2018.

STUDY QUESTIONIn a transgender population referred for fertility consultation, which factors influence the decision to cryopreserve oocytes and sperm?SUMMARY ANSWERPrevious hormonal treatment, gender affirmation surgery and sexual orientation were associated with the decision to undergo fertility preservation and transgender women underwent fertility preservation more frequently than transgender men.WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADYIt is well-known internationally that fertility preservation and fertility treatment are increasingly requested by transgender men and women. Factors affecting their decisions as well as treatment differences between transgender women and transgender men have been reported, but many studies have had low participation rates and small sample sizes.STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATIONThis retrospective cohort study, conducted during 2013–2018, included 78 transgender women (assigned male at birth and referred for sperm cryopreservation) and 164 transgender men (assigned female at birth referred for oocyte cryopreservation).PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODSIn 2013, the previous requirement for sterilization before completion of a legal gender change was removed in Sweden. All fertile-aged transgender men and transgender women referred to a tertiary care centre for consultation concerning fertility preservation, fertility treatment or hysterectomy were identified from administrative systems. Demographic, medical and treatment data were extracted from electronic medical records and from an ART database. Logistic regression was applied to analyse factors affecting the decision to cryopreserve gametes among transgender men and transgender women.MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCEA majority of transgender men (69.5%) and transgender women (82%), wanted to become parents. Fertility preservation was less frequent in transgender men than in transgender women (26.2% versus 75.6%, respectively). No individuals among those primarily referred for hysterectomy opted for cryopreservation of oocytes. Among transgender men, young age, no previous hormonal treatment and stating homosexual orientation were independent factors associated with the decision to cryopreserve oocytes. Among transgender women, the decision to undergo gender affirmation surgery and stating heterosexual orientation were independent factors associated with a decision to refrain from fertility preservation. Fertility treatments, using IUI or IVF with donor sperm, were mainly performed in partners of transgender men. Ten live births were reported in the group of transgender men and two for transgender women.LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTIONThe main limitation is the retrospective nature of the study, with missing data for many variables. The short study period and the study population being too young to permit observation of long-term outcomes of fertility preservation and fertility treatments are reasons for caution.WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGSOur results confirm that fertility preservation has been requested by transgender people since the change in Swedish legislation in 2013. Information about aspects of fertility early in the transition process is important, since hormonal and surgical treatments may have a large impact on the decision to undergo fertility preservation. It is important to train fertility clinic staff to identify and handle the specific obstacles, as well as address the need for information and support that transgender people may have when planning for fertility preservation, fertility treatment and pregnancy.STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)This research was supported by a grant from the Swedish state, under the ALF agreement between the Swedish government and the county councils (ALFGBG-720291), and by Hjalmar Svensson’s Research Foundation. None of the authors has any conflict of interest to declare.TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERN/A.

The Swedish Tradition of State Care for Cultural Heritage

The Nordic countries are notable for their ancient practice of reasonable care of their historical monuments. There were no ‘laws’ in the strict sense – it was replaced by numerous royal decrees. The decree of the King of Sweden, made in 1886, about patronage and protection of antiquities had the same goals as the parliamentary act about monuments. Sweden is in a particularly good position, because the state has long since taken over the protection of all antiquities in the country and it has established the principle that monuments and artefacts uncovered by excavations on private land do not come under the custody of the owner, but are the subject of state care. At the end of the 19th century it was not possible to establish this principle by direct legislation, but in Sweden it was due to the traditional custom that monuments and their protection have been of incalculable benefit. In this regard, Swedish legislation on the protection of cultural heritage is considered the oldest in the world. The tradition of state care for historical monuments here goes back some four centuries. At the beginning of this tradition in the 17th and early 18th centuries, a centralized Swedish state with great imperial ambitions and an important role in justifying its historical patrimony was formed.&#x0D; The second half of the 19th century was a turning point in monument conservation, resulting in the 1867 decree, which was amended twice, in 1873 and 1886. It reflects the tendencies of professionalization and centralization of monument preservation. The decree complicated the mechanism of approving the demolition of monuments during economic works. The mechanism for granting the right to investigate archaeological heritage was clarified. The overall progressive nature of Swedish regulations by the beginning of the twentieth century cannot but inspire respect, even though the whole legislation on monument conservation was comprised of royal decrees. It was not until 1942 that the Comprehensive Swedish Monument Preservation Act was adopted.

Serious violence – a challenge and reason for reforms?

This text discusses the more recent changes in Swedish criminal law with a focus on the more serious crime and some of the measures lately taken to counter that kind of criminality. A brief walk through the earlier reasoning on punishment and consequences is followed by a glimpse of the reasoning by the Swedish legislator on the rationale of increasing the penalty levels and remodeling the crimes themselves. In the conclusion we find some answers to whether we are dealing with symbolic measures without support in research or an adaptation to society changes and public view on increasing crime.

Fatal police shootings in Sweden

Something has happened. Over the past six years a total of 17 men have been shot dead by Swedish police. This is a dramatic increase of cases with deadly outcome. Previously, the number of fatal shootings in Sweden had been on average one per year. In total, there have been 44 cases of fatal shootings between 1990-2021.&#x0D; The trend of increasing fatal police shootings is alarming. Prosecutors have generally concluded that the police officers responsible for the shootings fired in self-defense, actual or imagined, to defend themselves or to defend others in dangerous situations. What the police took for a deadly weapon maybe was a harmless dummy. Or the death man – so far it has just been about men – was perhaps unarmed. In the few cases which have resulted in a prosecution, the courts have almost exclusively sided with the defense and concluded that the police officers acted in self-defense. There are few incidents concerning lawful authority, the right of the police to use force to carry out an official duty. &#x0D; The author analyzes and describes the legal problems connected to the recent dramatic increase of fatal police shootings. She also discusses what may be done within Swedish legislation do to reduce the risk that someone will fall victim to police bullets, and she makes suggestions about improvements to limiting deadly use of force by the police.

The social partners as actors in new labour law legislation in Sweden

This article focuses on the importance of the social partners in new labour law regulation where there is a weak parliamentary majority. The prevailing view in Sweden is that labour law regulation must be modernised as both companies and employees need improved opportunities in order to be able to adapt to changing conditions in the labour market. A Government inquiry and negotiations between the social partners in the private sector focused on these issues. The social partners reached two agreements: a Principle Agreement, including demands that the state provide new labour law regulation; and a Basic Agreement, which is a collective agreement about security, transition and employment protection. The Swedish Government decided to modernise the Swedish Employment Protection Act (LAS) 1 in line with the social partners’ suggestions. The government proposal covers three important labour law areas: (1) changes to the Swedish Employment Protection Act; (2) new state-financed public support for skills development; and (3) a new public transition organisation to provide basic transition support for employees not covered by a collective agreement. This article shows that the social partners have great power over new legislation and can create stability in labour law regulation in Sweden for the future. The government’s proposal implies that new regulation has moved from the provision of employment protection depending on length of service to better transition conditions for employees, and that the state is to take financial responsibility for the lifelong learning of professionals.

Thirty Years of Changes and the Current State of Swedish Animal Welfare Legislation.

Simple SummarySweden is often cited as a leading country in animal welfare and related legislation, but some recent changes in the national legislation are seen as lowering the animal welfare requirements in order to improve the competitiveness of Swedish farmers. In this study, we analysed suggested changes to the Swedish welfare legislation between 1988 and 2019 relating to horses, cattle and pigs, including the written motivations, the written stakeholder responses and the actual changes to the final regulations. We used a sample of 77 legal requirements to assess in depth whether the animal welfare level was affected by these changes in the legislation. The results showed that the animal welfare requirements in Sweden for cattle, pigs and horses increased overall during the 30-year study period, but that a number of specific requirements had been relaxed to satisfy interests other than animal welfare. Thus, the new requirements should be evaluated more fully in order to determine whether they serve their purpose in practice.Sweden is often seen as a leading country in animal welfare and legislation, but some recent amendments to the legislation are perceived as relaxing animal welfare requirements in order to improve the competitiveness of the relevant industry and of farmers. In this study, we analysed the suggested and actual changes in the Swedish national animal welfare regulations relating to horses, cattle and pigs between 1988 and 2019 and the consequences for the intended animal welfare level. The regulations and amendments, including the proposals, the written motivations, the stakeholders’ written responses to the proposed amendments and the final amendments, were scrutinised in detail. A sample of 77 requirements was then selected to assess whether and how the animal welfare level was affected by these legislative changes. The results indicated that the animal welfare protection level for cattle, pigs and horses increased overall during the 30-year period, but that a number of specific requirements had been relaxed to meet objectives other than animal welfare. It was more difficult to determine whether animal welfare improved in practice during the same period, due to the lack of systematic evaluations of the consequences of amending the regulations. Future evaluations are needed to evaluate the outcome of new legislative requirements and to monitor whether they serve their purpose in practice.

High school student perspectives on flipped classroom learning

ABSTRACT Flipped classroom pedagogics has become a widely used approach within blended learning. The aim of the present study is to add students’ perspectives on the flipped classroom as used as a pedagogical method in a Swedish upper secondary school. In this qualitative study, eight students participated in focus group interviews. Problems were found both for neurotypical students as well as for a neurodiverse student. Unless special care is taken, students with neurodiversity may not be given equal opportunities for learning, in conflict with Swedish school legislation. Issues are discussed that need to be addressed when introducing flipped classroom course design at high school level.

Is there a potential international market for Danish welfare pork? – A consumer survey from Denmark, Sweden, and Germany

This cross-country study investigates the potential to improve pig welfare by exploiting consumer demand, domestically and in export markets, for welfare pork produced in indoor production systems. The analysis is based on questionnaire data collected in 2019 focusing on demand for Danish welfare pork both in Denmark and in two nearby export markets, Sweden and Germany. To reduce hypothetical bias, a willingness-to-pay indicator is combined with an indicator of positive interest in buying a fictive Danish welfare labelled pork. We find that the market potential is relatively weak. Our findings indicate that there is some, albeit limited, potential in Denmark and Germany while demand is practically non-existing in Sweden, probably because the pig welfare guaranteed by Swedish legislation is similar to what is provided by the fictive welfare label employed in the study. Hence, consumer demand alone cannot secure enhanced pig welfare. Moreover, we found national differences in the characteristics of consumers who are interested in Danish welfare pork.

Positioning the donor in a new landscape-mothers' and fathers' experiences as their adult children obtained information about the identity-release sperm donor.

STUDY QUESTIONHow do heterosexual parents experience identity-release donation when adult children have obtained information about their sperm donor?SUMMARY ANSWERAdult offspring’s receipt of identifying information about the sperm donor challenged the fathers’ role as a parent, which was reflected in how parents positioned the donor in relation to the family.WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADYAn increasing number of countries provide access to treatment with identity-release or ‘open-identity’ donors. However, there is limited knowledge about how parents experience and manage the situation when adult offspring obtain identifying information about the donor and may even establish contact with him.STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATIONThis qualitative interview study included 23 parents whose offspring had obtained information about their sperm donor. Interviews were conducted from October 2018 to January 2019.PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODSA purposive sample of parents (15 mothers and 8 fathers) was recruited via adult offspring, who had requested identifying donor information at five Swedish University hospitals. All participating parents were part of a heterosexual couple who had conceived with sperm from an identity-release donor. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to face or via telephone, and transcribed audio recordings were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis.MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCEThe parents expressed diverse experiences related to their parenthood and the presence of the donor after offspring had obtained information about him; these were described in two themes. The theme ‘Navigating (in)visible markers of parenthood’ describes parenthood as embedded with dichotomous meanings of nature and nurture that parents navigated in relation to social approval. The theme ‘Positioning the donor in a new landscape’ describes how parents managed the presence of the donor by positioning him at a distance or acknowledging him as a person or even as part of the family, while some struggled to position him, giving rise to ambivalent feelings. The absence of genetic connectedness challenged the father’s role as parent, which was reflected in parents’ positioning of the donor.LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTIONThe study was performed within the context of the Swedish legislation on identity-release donation and is based on experiences of heterosexual couples who had used sperm donation and had informed their offspring about their donor conception. This, together with the fact that parents’ accounts were predominantly represented by mothers, must be taken into consideration regarding transferability to other populations.WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGSNegotiations of social and genetic parenthood are still present among parents many years after treatment and may resurface when adult offspring obtain the donor’s identity. Access of the adult offspring to identifying information about the donor may have unexpected consequences for family relations, including expanding the family to include the donor. Challenges related to male infertility and family dynamics indicate that parents should have access to counseling and support to manage family life with varying genetic linkage within and outside the family unit.STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)Financial support was from The Swedish Research Council (Grant 2013-2712). There are no conflicts of interest to declare.TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERN/A.

The Disputed Responsibility for the Cultural Heritage: The Kvarnbacken Case

This article deals with the conflict about the responsibility for costs in connection with contract archaeology. Today, according to Swedish legislation, whoever wants to disturb, move, or destroy an antiquity must pay for the archaeological excavation. The starting point for the article is an empirical case from the province of Östergötland to which an actor perspective is applied. The case is also placed in a context to do with tendencies towards change and the discussion in recent years concerning the cultural heritage and national memory policy. By showing features of continuity and discontinuity in cultural heritage management the author seeks to reveal and reflect on the dilemmas surrounding the legislation, which dates back to the 1940s and is questioned by many.

Low adherence to legislation regarding Do-Not-Attempt-Cardiopulmonary-Resuscitation orders in a Swedish University Hospital

BackgroundThe ethical principles of resuscitation have been incorporated into Swedish legislation so that a decision to not attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation (DNACPR) entails (1) consultation with patient or relatives if consultation with patient was not possible and documentation of their attitudes; (2) consultation with other licensed caregivers; (3) documentation of the grounds for the DNACPR. Our aim was to evaluate adherence to this legislation, explore the grounds for the decision and the attitudes of patients and relatives towards DNACPR orders. MethodsWe included DNACPR forms issued after admission through the emergency department at Karolinska University Hospital between 1st January and 31st October, 2015. Quantitative analysis evaluated adherence to legislation and qualitative analysis of a random sample of 20% evaluated the grounds for the decision and the attitudes. ResultsThe cohort consisted of 3583 DNACPR forms. In 40% of these it was impossible to consult the patient, and relatives were consulted in 46% of these cases. For competent patients, consultation occurred in 28% and the most common attitude was to wish to refrain from resuscitation. Relatives were consulted in 26% and they mainly agreed with the decision. Grounds for the DNAR decision was most commonly severe chronic comorbidity, malignancy or multimorbidity with or without an acute condition. All requirements of the legislation were fulfilled in 10% of the cases. ConclusionIn 90% of the cases physicians failed to fulfil all requirements in the Swedish legislation regarding DNAR orders. The decision was mostly based on chronic, severe comorbidity or multimorbidity.

Occupational cold exposure is associated with increased reporting of airway symptoms

ObjectiveTo determine if exposure to cold environments, during work or leisure time, was associated with increased reporting of airway symptoms in the general population of northern Sweden.MethodsThrough a population-based postal survey responded to by 12627 subjects, ages 18–70, living in northern Sweden, the occurrence of airway symptoms was investigated. Cold exposure during work or leisure time was self-reported on numerical rating scales. Binary logistic regression was used to determine the statistical association between cold exposure and airway symptoms.ResultsFor currently working subjects (N = 8740), reporting any occupational cold exposure was associated to wheeze (OR 1.3; 95% CI 1.1–1.4); chronic cough (OR 1.2; 95% CI 1.1–1.4); and productive cough (OR 1.3; 95% CI 1.1–1.4), after adjusting for gender, age, body mass index, daily smoking, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Leisure-time cold exposure was not significantly associated to reporting airway symptoms.ConclusionsOccupational cold exposure was an independent predictor of airway symptoms in northern Sweden. Therefore, a structured risk assessment regarding cold exposure could be considered for inclusion in the Swedish workplace legislation.

Social work law in nexus with migration law. A legal cartographic analysis of inter-legal spaces of inclusion and exclusion in Swedish legislation

ABSTRACT This article departs from the promise frequently put forward, that Social work is a profession committed to human rights. In a Swedish context, this commitment is manifested in ethical guidelines as well as national law referring to rights such as the right to ‘a reasonable living standard’. In recent years, politicized processes have allowed legislation guiding social work to interact deeply with other legal areas such as migration law which has a different raison d’être, focus and scope than social law (interlegality). This has greatly affected social workers opportunities to live up to its human rights commitment. In this article, we explore two critical incidents of interlegality in resent years, illustrated with two different empirical data sets and their intersection – a change in the Act on the reception of asylum seekers and others (1994:137) and a verdict by the Swedish Supreme Administrative Court concerning the ultimate protection net in the Social Services Act (2001, 453) (HFD 2017 ref. 33). Making use of cartographic analytical tools, we analyse transformations in the conditions set for access to a ‘reasonable living standard’ in Sweden. In particular, focus is on what the intersection of legal (vertical) scales and legal (horizontal) spaces perform, qua law, and how changes in one legal branch (migration law) deeply affect another area (social law). As a consequence, the Social Services Act, which is central to Swedish social work, may be constructed as a law about legal status rather than about needs and welfare rights. This has a profound impact on social work as a human rights profession.

Cattle Cleanliness from the View of Swedish Farmers and Official Animal Welfare Inspectors.

Dirty cattle have been commonly recorded in official animal welfare inspections in Sweden for years. The relevant authorities have initiated work to better understand the causes of dirty cattle, in order to improve compliance and standardize the grounds for categorizing a farm as non-compliant with welfare legislation when dirty animals are present. This study investigated the occurrence of dirty cattle in official animal welfare controls, on Swedish cattle farms, and examined farmers' views on the reasons for non-compliance and on key factors in keeping animals clean. The data used were collected by animal welfare inspectors at the county level during the regular official inspections of 371 dairy and beef cattle farms over two weeks in winter 2020. In addition to completing the usual inspection protocol, the inspectors asked farmers a set of questions relating to why their animals were clean or dirty. Dirty cattle were found on 49% of the farms inspected, but only 33% of the farms were categorized as being non-compliant with Swedish welfare legislation. According to inspectors and farmers, dirtiness in cattle depends mainly on management routines, which is a promising result since routines can be improved. The results also revealed a need for better guidance for inspectors and farmers on when dirtiness should be categorized as non-compliance with animal welfare legislation.

#MeToo, consent and prostitution – The Irish law reform experience

The recent reform of Irish prostitution law introduced in Part 4 of the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017, which criminalised the purchase of sexual services, is based upon 1999 Swedish legislation in accordance with an approach termed ‘the Nordic model’. The Nordic approach has been subject to criticism from those who argue that laws criminalising sex purchase offend against personal autonomy. This article challenges that criticism, and offers feminist arguments for the reform, which represented a significant turn in the focus of Irish law from a framework based upon prohibition of public nuisance, towards an approach which views prostitution as an inherently exploitative transaction within a gendered context. The author argues that feminist arguments in support of the new Irish law are based upon reconsideration of consent as a legal concept, informed by insights gained through the work of the #MeToo movement on the need to take account of social and economic contexts within which consent is given and choices made.