Swallow Nests Research Articles

STRATEGI PENGELOLAAN PAJAK DAERAH DALAM MENINGKATKAN PENDAPATAN ASLI DAERAH (PAD) KOTA BANJARMASIN

This study aims to determine the effectiveness, efficiency and strategy of local tax management to increase the local receipt (PAD). The analysis technique used is descriptive analysis and SWOT analysis. The result of the research shows that the 2011-2015 average of effectiveness ratio of Banjarmasin City Local Tax is included in very effective category, so also efficiency ratio is in very efficient category. In detail the Local Taxes by type belonging to very effective categories include Hotel Tax, Restaurant Tax, Street Lighting Tax, Parking Tax, and Rural and Urban Land and Building Tax (PBB-PP). Fairly effective categories include Entertainment Tax and Advertising Tax, less effective category is a BPHTB tax, while the Swallow's Nest Tax is an ineffective category. Overall efficiency averages fall into the most efficient category, except the Tax on Land and Building Acquisition (BPHTB) and Rural and Urban Land and Building Tax (PBB-PP) which fall into the efficient category. Strategies to increase Local Receipt (PAD) are 1) to socialize and publicize services and public awareness of the importance of Local Taxes 2) Increase the use of better information technology so as to increase the capability in validation of tax potentials and levies more valid, 3) Simplify the bureaucratic stage and increase online services in terms of tax payments so as to attract public interest to pay taxes.Keyword: Local Receipt, Local Tax, Effectiveness Ratio, Efficiency Ratio

Perilaku penggunaan alat pelindung diri para pengunduh sarang burung walet: studi etnografi perilaku keselamatan kerja di Pantai Karangduwur Kabupaten Kebumen

The use of personal protective equipment by swallow nest harvesters: an ethnographic study on safety behavior at Karangduwur BeachPurposeThe purpose of this study was to determine the behavior of traditional self-protection used by the swallow nest harvesters.MethodsThis research is a qualitative study with an ethnographic approach. The researchers participated in observing the behavior of bird swallow nest harvesters. The sample was chosen purposively based on the recommendation of the village head. Primary data were obtained through in-depth interviews and field observations. Secondary data were collected through document search on swiftlet nest download. The study was conducted from August-October 2016 with the instruments of interview guides, observation sheets and documents.ResultsDHarvesters used non-standard personal protective equipment. Downloaders tended to use traditional personal protective equipment, with the reasoning that using too much protection will interrupt the harvesting process. ConclusionThe use of personal protective equipment by harvesters is influenced by an interaction of factors between individuals and the environment and vice versa. The concerned agencies should pay close attention to the use of personal protective equipment used by Swallow's nest harvesters.

The effect of nest site orientation on the breeding success of blue swallowsHirundo atrocaeruleain South Africa

AbstractThe globally threatened blue swallowHirundo atrocaerulea, with <1500 pairs remaining, is an intra‐African migrant, breeding in eight countries in East Africa and Southern Africa, with nonbreeding birds in four countries in East Africa. Blue swallows build an open cup‐shaped nest out of mud and straw in an existing hole in the ground. An updated description of a blue swallow's nest site is that it is a hole in the ground, that faces in a region‐specific direction that maximizes reproductive success, with a roof or overhang or vegetation sufficient to keep the rain off the nest and its contents. Blue swallow breeding success was significantly different between KwaZulu‐Natal and Mpumalanga but, within each province, not between natural and artificial nest sites. Based on the number of fledglings per egg, blue swallow breeding success in Mpumalanga was best in north‐ and west‐facing nest sites, and in KwaZulu‐Natal, breeding success was best in north‐ and east‐facing nest sites. Artificial nest sites should continue to be created for blue swallows that are north to west facing in Mpumalanga (and possibly in Swaziland), and north to east facing in KwaZulu‐Natal.

Wind and rain are the primary climate factors driving changing phenology of an aerial insectivore.

While the ecological effects of climate change have been widely observed, most efforts to document these impacts in terrestrial systems have concentrated on the impacts of temperature. We used tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) nest observations from two widely separated sites in central Alaska to examine the aspects of climate affecting breeding phenology at the northern extent of this species' range. We found that two measures of breeding phenology, annual lay and hatch dates, are more strongly predicted by windiness and precipitation than by temperature. At our longest-monitored site, breeding phenology has advanced at nearly twice the rate seen in more southern populations, and these changes correspond to long-term declines in windiness. Overall, adverse spring climate conditions known to negatively impact foraging success of swallows (wet, windy weather) appear to influence breeding phenology more than variation in temperature. Separate analyses show that short windy periods significantly delay initiation of individual clutches within years. While past reviews have emphasized that increasing variability in climate conditions may create physiological and ecological challenges for natural populations, we find that long-term reductions in inclement weather corresponded to earlier reproduction in one of our study populations. To better predict climate change impacts, ecologists need to more carefully test effects of multiple climate variables, including some, like windiness, that may be of paramount importance to some species, but have rarely been considered as strong drivers of ecological responses to climate alteration.

Dermanyssus gallinae (Acari, Mesostigmata) in the Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica) nests in Urmia suburb, North West of Iran

Migratory birds are most often responsible for the distribution of avian diseases in different areas and serve as hosts for most parasites, including ectoparasites. The aim of the present study was to record the distribution range of a mesostigmatic mite species, Dermanyssus gallinae in barn swallow nests in Urmia suburb, North West of Iran. The samples were collected from 161 bird nests in 44 villages during 2013–2014. From a total of 161 swallow nests, 61 samples were infested by at least one mite. According to the result, D. gallinae was present in the majority of sampled nests. Since it can be transmitted to the other industrial birds and humans habit through swallows. It is recommended to spray acaricide two times per year before and after nesting in order to reduce mite population with minimum harmful effects of acaricide on the exposed birds.

Primal Weaving: Structure and Meaning in Language and Architecture

Primal Weaving:Structure and Meaning in Language and Architecture Jason Rhys Parry (bio) In Book II of the ancient architectural treatise, De architectura, Vitruvius gives a mythical account of the conjoined origins of architecture and language: “[I]n ancient times,” he writes, “men were born like wild animals in the forests, caves and woods, and spent their lives feeding on fodder” (37). One night, while a fierce storm ravaged the woods where these ancient humans lived, a mighty fire broke out. Faced with the flames, the men and women fled in terror. Some, however, recovering from their initial fright, and sensing the warmth emanating from the blaze, moved closer to it and began to throw more wood on it. Using sign language, those feeding the flames communicated to the others the virtues of the fire. After coming together around the fire, Vitruvius claims, “men began to form words,” and “by indicating frequently the things they used, they began to talk in a haphazard way and so generated a common language” (37). At this point, employing their novel means of communication, “some of them from these first groups began to make shelters of foliage, others to dig caves at the foot of mountains and yet others to build refuges of mud and branches in which to shelter in imitation of the nests of swallows and their way of building” (38). Alas, humans invented speech and architecture. According to Vitruvius, language and architecture owe their origins to fire; and Vitruvius’ myth, like many myths, hints at a possible truth—in this case, about the prehistoric production of structure and meaning. The fire is a sign that precipitates a crisis of interpretation: the ones who return to the flames resist the meaning their companions assigned to the fire—“dangerous”—and arrive at a more nuanced evaluation: “dangerous, yes, but also useful.” Fire also produces a distinct thermal space—a nomos—determined by the conduction of heat in the atmosphere. As heat radiates outward, it creates a fuzzy yet perceptible threshold between the sensations of coldness and warmth, to which humans readily adapt by forming rings around the blaze. By reinterpreting the fire, Vitruvius’ early humans learned to exploit this structured distribution of thermal intensity to invent a new social arrangement—the fireside ring—that [End Page 125] in turn created the conditions for the physical proximity, intimacy, and extended face-to-face contact that almost certainly, as Vitruvius claims, facilitated linguistic evolution (Wrangham 185). With language, humans devised a robust semiotic system that not only served communicative purposes, but also functioned to demarcate space. Language produces a space of audibility that is inherently social. The so-called “language barrier” is both the antecedent to and invisible correlate of the physical barrier marking out the edges of a human group. The unique phonology of a language creates a shared semantic zone—a “wall-less house of sounds”—that marks an inside and an outside just as effectively as a crude material barrier (Sloterdijk 520). As evidenced by Paleolithic findings, the physical walls that later traced an outline around the social space of a shared language also owe their origins to fire (Campbell 93). Early humans protected their fires by erecting a low stone boundary around the flames. In this arrangement of stones, we see the ancient predecessor of the wall, an instance of spatial delineation that would serve as a locus of successive encirclements: the stone boundary around the hearth would be, in turn, surrounded by another wall around the fire-sharing humans; and, eventually, would be echoed by the enclosures and fences around entire human settlements—that is, around the complete assembly of communal fires. Architecture and language therefore share a fundamental affinity with sound, since architecture emerges as a means of preserving the fireside space for language sharing, and, later, of articulating the edge of a linguistic community. Even writing, which itself is silent, stores within itself instructions for sound production. The arches and arabesques of written letters guide the human mouth in the formation of sounds as much as the arches and walls of buildings guide sound’s diffusion, absorption, and reflection. In his mythical account, Vitruvius cites swallows’ nests as...

Suspected Usurpation of Tree Swallow Nests by Eastern Bluebirds in West-Central Virginia

Abstract Researchers have reported that both Tachycineta bicolor (Tree Swallow) and Tachycineta thalassina (Violet-green Swallow) are more aggressive than Sialia sialis (Eastern Bluebird) and often outcompete bluebirds for nest sites. Therefore, we would not have expected that Tree Swallows would be victims of usurpation by Eastern Bluebirds. However, as part of a study on Tree Swallows, we found that although Tree Swallows occupied 68% of the nest boxes during May, there was also evidence of nest loss in Tree Swallows due to usurpation by Eastern Bluebirds. Suspected usurpation by Eastern Bluebirds resulted in the loss of 18% of Tree Swallow nests over 2 years. Almost all usurpation events coincided with the conclusion of the first nesting cycle in Eastern Bluebirds. Our data suggest that usurpation by Eastern Bluebirds is more common than reported in the literature.

Tree Swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) foraging responses to agricultural land use and abundance of insect prey

Throughout North America, many species of aerial insectivorous birds have exhibited steep declines. The timing of these declines coincides with changes in agriculture, perhaps signaling a causal link. Increased agrochemical use, wetland drainage, and cropping intensity may indirectly influence insectivores by reducing the abundance of insect prey. Our objective was to determine whether changes in insect abundance and biomass on agricultural landscapes in the Canadian Prairies influence the foraging behaviour of breeding Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor (Vieillot, 1808)). Swallows were studied at five sites with varying levels of agricultural intensity in Saskatchewan, where insect abundance and biomass were monitored daily with passive aerial samplers. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology was employed at Tree Swallow nest boxes to investigate adult foraging behaviour. Foraging rates (number of nest visits/h) were slightly higher on agricultural sites than at grassland sites, and were positively related to daily insect biomass and nestling age. Tree Swallows, especially males, breeding at agricultural sites spent more time away from the nest box, presumably foraging, resulting in reduced nest attentiveness. RFID technology provides an effective technique to measure behaviour in birds and these findings suggest mechanisms by which prey abundance and agricultural land use may affect declining aerial insectivorous bird populations.

ANALISIS PENDAPATAN RETRIBUSI DALAM MENUNJANG PENDAPATAN ASLI DAERAH (PAD) KOTA METRO

In the framework of the implementation of regional autonomy in accordance with the Act-Act 32 of 2004 on local government. Local governments are required to be able to organize and manage his household broadly and comprehensively based on existing regulations and develop and increase local revenue. The purpose of this study was to determine how much contribution levy of public services, business services, licensing certain to support the Local Revenue Metro City. The method used in this research is descriptive quantitative method is to do research on the object of the research that produced the data - the data information that is associated with the research that will be studied.The contribution of each type of area to PAD revenues in the period 2010 to 2014 fiscal year very flukuatif. Contributions contained in a levy of General Services is the average-average contribution of five years by 27%, the levy Business Services 4%, Levy Licensing Certain 2%, while 67% is the result of PAD others sourced from the Hotel Tax, Amusement Tax, Advertisement Tax, Tax Street Lighting (PLN and ULC Siwo Mego), Income Tax Minerals Group C and Tax concession Swallow nests and Seriti. Keywords: Revenue, Levy, PAD

ANALISIS EFEKTIVITAS PENERAPAN PAJAK SARANG BURUNG WALET DI KABUPATEN MINAHASA

Regional Income is derived from local taxes and levies. Local taxes in Indonesia based on Law No. 28 of 2009 is divided into two, namely, provincial taxes and tax districts / cities. Tax Swallow's Nest is a local tax. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of taxation bird nest in Minahasa district. The analytical method used in this research is descriptive qualitative analysis to give you an idea whether the taxation of bird's nest has been effective or not and how much contribution it provides to the local revenue. The results showed that in 2011 the tax effectiveness of bird's nest of 22.28%, in 2012 amounted to 109.63%, in 2013 amounted to 129.48% and in 2014 amounted to 158.45% and the tax contributions of bird's nest on Revenue PAD in 2011 amounted to 0.09%, in 2012 amounted to 9.75%, in 2013 amounted to 8.12% and in 2014 amounted to 6.20%. It can be concluded taxation swallow nest in Minahasa district has been very effective and overall Contributions Tax swallow's nests against local revenue in 2011 through 2014 contributed greatly lacking.

Morphology Characteristics of Swiftlet’s Nest Natural Habitats (Cave) in Gunong Pungki Tadu Raya the District Nagan Raya

INTRODUCTION:Swiftlet (Aerodramus sp) is a bird that is very unique, because this bird has a habit of foraging by way of darting in the air to catch small insects. In addition, this bird is also a bird that is aerial and like gliding. The bird's nest is recognized as a health food source of the prestigious and winning (Mei Yang., Sau-Ha Cheung, Sze Chun Li., and Hon-Yeung, 2014). 90% of people use the Chinese a bird nest in their cooking Swallow nest is made from the saliva of swallow. Swiftlets nest are beneficial to health and delicacy in nature with high nutrient content (Marcone, 2005; Olsen, P. S., Poulsen, S. S., Kirkegaard, P., and Nexo, E. 1984).Protein contained in the swiftlet's nest is 62 -63% and carbohydrates is it 25,26% and 27,26% (Oda, M., Ohta, S., Suga, T and Aoki, T. 1998). In addition, swiftlets nest can inhibit influenza virus infection, accelerate the recovery of the disease, stimulating the appetite, aid digestion strengthens the lungs and boost immunity (Guo, C. T., Takahashi, T., Bukawa, W., Takahashi, N., Yagi, H., Kato, K., Hidari, K. J., Miyamoto, D., Suzuki, T., and Suzuki, Y. 2006; Mei Yang, 2014).Swiftlets usually live in cave especially dark ones. Swiftlet are capable of detecting nest (echolocation) in the dark similar to bats. Swiftlet nest breeding in the cave, by utilizing the cave walls, ceilings are curved and have small bumps found on cave walls to make a nest. Swiftlet excretes a gelatinous secretion which is located under the tongue which serves to bind the materials to make nests that are often referred to as a nest cement (R,. Suriya and Zakaria, Zunita and Yusoff, Rosnina and A., Fadzillah and Hassan, Latiffah, 2004).Gunong Pungki is one of the mountains in the Tadu Raya district of Nagan Raya. In Gunong Pungki region, there is a cave inhabited by the swiftlets, which is managed by the local community. The cave has been a natural habitat to swiftlet for a long time, but the people were not aware of its benefits of the swiftlets nest.The swiftlets nest cave natural habitat occupied swiftlet Gunong Pungki region, has its own morphology characteristics based on its place. This is what researchers want to examine to determine the characteristics of the surface morphology and the outer surface of the cave in Gunong Pungki. Moreover, the presence of this study are expected to be able to know the people around the cave caves morphological characteristics and also the benefit of bird nest that is in the cave.MATERIAL AND MENTHODS:This study was conducted between May 2014 to June 2014. The research activities carried out in the Gunong Pungki Tadu Raya District Nagan Raya were shown in the Figure-i.The tools used in this study are digital cameras, notebooks, polpen. The materials used in this study is the birds' nest caves, plants and animals that exist around the cave.The method used in this study is a survey method that is divided into two phases: pre -survey and survey stage. Pre-stage survey was conducted to observe the initial location around Cave a natural swiftlets nest. Phase survey was conducted to collect the data needed to record the types of plants, animals that are around the cave, the morphology characteristics of the surface and the outer surface morphology cave in Gunong Pungki Tadu Rata District of Nagan Raya.Technique for Getting Samples:The swiftlets nest cave divided into 2 places of observation, namely the upper / outer cave swiftlet nest and the inner surface of bird's nest cave. Retrieval of research data on the upper surface of the cave swiftlet nests made by observing the types of plants and animals on cave swiftlet nests. On the outer surface of the cave also observed the surface morphology on the ground lining the cave. The surface of the cave was directly observed. Observation of the dark cave lit by torchlight, and the cave ceiling was observed using a bamboo ladder.Technique for Collecting Data:Collecting data with field observation and recording. …

Effect of ambient noise on parent–offspring interactions in tree swallows

Many recent studies suggest that increased ambient noise can disrupt acoustic communication in animals and might ultimately decrease their reproductive success. Most of these studies have focused on long-distance signals used in mate attraction and territory defence, but close-range acoustic interactions between parents and offspring may also be disrupted by noise and are closely linked to reproductive success. To test the effect of noise on parent–offspring interactions, we experimentally applied white noise (65 dB SPL) to the nests of tree swallows, Tachycineta bicolor, when nestlings were 3–6 days old. At experimental nests, parents gave fewer provisioning calls, which are used to stimulate begging, but otherwise we detected no difference in provisioning behaviour between experimental and control nests. More nestlings begged for food at experimental nests, using calls that were higher in amplitude and minimum frequency, than at control nests. When we played back nestling begging calls during parental visits to stimulate higher feeding rates, parents increased their feeding rates at control nests, but not at experimental nests. Our results show that noise can alter parent–offspring interactions and interfere with parental responses to begging calls. Nestlings may be able to compensate for moderate increases in noise by enhancing the conspicuousness of their begging signal, although at higher noise levels these adjustments may prove ineffective or the extra begging effort may be physiologically costly.

Nestling recognition in red-rumped and barn swallows

Nestling recognition and rejection is a rare defense strategy against avian brood parasitism that was previously thought to be too costly to evolve. Recently, several examples of nestling recognition and rejection by fosterers have been reported. Here, we tested for chick recognition ability in red-rumped swallows (Hirundo daurica), which build closed nests and do not discriminate against foreign eggs, by using cross-fostering experiments while controlling for responses to intraspecific and interspecific parasitism in closely related swallow species. We show that red-rumped swallows do not discriminate against conspecific or barn swallow (H. rustica) nestlings, but eject or reject cuckoo nestlings cross-fostered in red-rumped swallow nests by starving the introduced chicks to death. Assuming that the behavior of red-rumped swallows evolved in response to cuckoo parasitism, this study represents novel empirical evidence showing that chick discrimination evolved when brood parasites have completely evaded host defenses at the egg stage. The evolution of such recognition ability may be explained as a defense against avian brood parasitism by small-sized cuckoos or a pre-adaptation to specific communication between host parents and offspring. Our results are consistent with the “rarer enemy” hypothesis predicting that nestling discrimination should evolve only in hosts that accept all naturally laid parasite eggs and thus do not decrease effective parasitism rate at the nestling stage. In contrast, the findings were inconsistent with a number of alternative hypotheses.

Canyon Wren Territory Occupancy and Site Attributes in Northern Colorado

In this study we examined patterns of habitat occupancy by canyon wrens (Catherpes mexicanus), an insectivorous, cliff-obligate bird species, in Northern Colorado. Canyon wren territories are generally large and widely spaced, and it is currently unclear if their densities are limited by the availability of cliff habitats that have particular biotic and/or abiotic attributes. We used playback of conspecific song to survey 138 cliff sites and found 23 occupied territories, confirming the species occurs in low densities. Using a model-fitting approach, we assessed the importance of seven factors hypothesized to be important to canyon wren territory settlement and found occupied territories had cliffs that were more likely to be overhung, rather than vertical. Habitat occupancy of canyon wrens was also associated with the presence of cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and their nests, with canyon wrens observed nesting and foraging within cliff swallow nests throughout the year. As no abiotic factors predicted both the presence of canyon wrens and cliff swallows, we suggest the biotic resources provided by cliff swallows might be important in driving patterns of canyon wren territory occupation. If canyon wren settlement patterns are affected by the presence of cliff swallows, this system could represent a rare case of heterospecific attraction, where a migratory species (cliff swallow) drives patterns of habitat occupation by a non-migratory species (canyon wren).

Taxonomy and Antimicrobial Activity of an Actinomycete Strain Isolated from Swallow Bird Mud Nest

An actinobacterial strain designated as BN-6 was isolated from swallow bird mud nest by agar plate dilution method. It showed the morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics of the genus Streptomyces. On the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and physiological tests, this isolate was found to be most closely related with Streptomyces vinaceusdrappus NRRL2363. The strain BN-6 produced a broad spectrum active metabolite in Glucose Soybean meal (GS) medium and was extracted with HP Dianion resin. The resin extracted product showed activity against Gram-positive, Gram-negative bacteria, acid fast bacilli and fugal cultures, suggesting it broad spectrum characteristics. The bioautography on silica gel plates using Micrococcus luteus MTCC106 as test organism indicated the presence of a single metabolite having a Rf value of 3.2 and 9.1 in two different solvent systems. The characteristic peak obtained in UV–VIS spectrophotometer at 214 nm and chemical analysis indicates that it may be peptide class of metabolite.

Predation by ants controls swallow bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae: Oeciacus vicarius) infestations.

The swallow bug (Oeciacus vicarius) is the only known vector for Buggy Creek virus (BCRV), an alphavirus that circulates in cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and house sparrows (Passer domesticus) in North America. We discovered ants (Crematogaster lineolata and Formica spp.) preying on swallow bugs at cliff swallow colonies in western Nebraska, U.S.A. Ants reduced the numbers of visible bugs on active swallow nests by 74-90%, relative to nests in the same colony without ants. Ant predation on bugs had no effect on the reproductive success of cliff swallows inhabiting the nests where ants foraged. Ants represent an effective and presumably benign way of controlling swallow bugs at nests in some colonies. They may constitute an alternative to insecticide use at sites where ecologists wish to remove the effects of swallow bugs on cliff swallows or house sparrows. By reducing bug numbers, ant presence may also lessen BCRV transmission at the spatial foci (bird colony sites) where epizootics occur. The effect of ants on swallow bugs should be accounted for in studying variation among sites in vector abundance.

Geomorphic impacts of mud-nesting swallows in Central Texas

The cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) and the cave swallow (Petrochelidon fulva) both construct nests entirely out of mud and aggregate in large colonies (tens to thousands of nests) suggesting they can be considered as geomorphic agents. This study analyzes 16 swallow colonies to address the following three research questions: (1) What is the total sediment present at each colony? (2) What is the annual rate of sediment transport by swallows for nesting purposes? and (3) Is there a significant difference in mud-nest mass between the cave swallow’s cup-shaped and the cliff swallow’s gourd-shaped mud-nest? The total sediment present across all sites was estimated at 2125 kg, ranging from 11.5 kg in the smallest colony to 953.6 kg in the largest colony. In one summer, cliff and cave swallows transported an estimated 560 kg of sediment across all sites, with the greatest colony constructing 233 nests weighing an estimated 193.4 kg. Statistical analysis determined there to be a significant difference in nest mass between the two nest shapes (cup-shaped and gourd-shaped), with the cup-shaped, cave swallow nest the larger. This research indicates that mud-nesting swallows are an example of an overlooked geomorphic agent.

“On rotting eggs, swallow nests and lacquered ducks” – culinary topics in Łódź press 1949–1956

“On rotting eggs, swallow nests and lacquered ducks” – culinary topics in Łódź press 1949–1956

Evaluating risks to wildlife from coal fly ash incorporating recent advances in metals and metalloids risk assessment

Current scientific advances in metal and metalloid risk assessment were applied to evaluate risk to aquatic and riparian wildlife species potentially impacted by residual coal fly ash after cleanup of an unprecedented large ash release into an aquatic environment-the first assessment of its kind. Risk was evaluated using multiple lines of evidence (LOE), including 1) tissue-based risk assessment of inorganic concentrations in piscivorous and insectivorous bird eggs and raccoon organs, 2) deterministic and probabilistic diet-based risk estimates for 10 receptors species, 3) raccoon health metrics, and 4) tree swallow nest productivity measures. Innovative approaches included use of tissue-based toxicity reference values (TRVs), adjustment of bioavailability in the dietary uptake models (using sequential metal extractions in sediment), partitioning chemical species into uptake compartments (e.g., prey gut, nongut, sediment), incorporating uncertainty in both modeled dose and dietary TRVs, matching TRVs to chemical forms of constituents, and pairing these LOEs with reproductive success or health status of sensitive receptor species. The weight of evidence revealed that risk to wildlife from residual ash was low and that risk, though low, was most pronounced for insectivorous birds from exposure to Se and As. This information contributes to the debate surrounding coal combustion residue regulations prompted by this ash release. Because of the responsible party's proactive approach of applying state-of-the-art methods to assess risk using several LOEs that produced consistent results, and because of their inclusion of the regulating agencies in decisions at every step of the process, the risk assessment results were accepted, and an effective approach toward cleanup protective of the environment was quickly implemented. This study highlights the value of using multiple LOEs and the latest scientific advances to assist in timely decision making to obtain an effective remedy for an emergency spill.

Hawk mimicry in cuckoos and anti‐parasitic aggressive behavior of barn swallows in Denmark and China

Hosts of brood parasites defend their nests against parasitism by aggression and subsequently, if parasitized, by rejection of the parasite egg or nestling. Cuckoos have evolved plumage mimicry with convergence towards the phenotype of Accipiter hawks that are common predators of cuckoo hosts. Here we tested two alternative hypotheses 1) whether barn swallows Hirundo rustica have evolved less aggressive behavior towards cuckoos in areas of sympatry with more abundant Accipiter hawks; and 2) whether barn swallows have evolved more aggressive anti‐parasite behavior in areas with a single species of cuckoo. We presented dummies of common cuckoo Cuculus canorus, sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus and Oriental turtledove Streptopelia orientalis (a benign control) at the nests of barn swallows during breeding, while recording intensity of response and proximity of barn swallows to the dummy. We demonstrated that cuckoos moved away when attacked aggressively and approached more closely by barn swallows showing that barn swallow behavior was efficient at driving away cuckoos. Barn swallows were significantly more aggressive and approached cuckoo and sparrowhawk dummies more closely in Denmark than in China, despite sparrowhawks being relatively more common in Denmark. Responses towards cuckoo dummies differed from responses towards sparrowhawk dummies, showing that barn swallows distinguished between the two different causes of danger. These findings are inconsistent with a less aggressive response towards cuckoo dummies in areas of sympatry with more abundant Accipiter hawks, but consistent with the alternative hypothesis that barn swallows have evolved more aggressive behavior towards cuckoos in areas with a single species of brood parasite, but not in areas with multiple species of parasites, where it is harder for hosts to tell the difference.