Sustainable Watershed Management Research Articles

River Stream Flow Prediction through Advanced Machine Learning Models for Enhanced Accuracy

The Narmada River basin, a significant water resource in central India, plays a crucial role in supporting agricultural, industrial, and domestic water supply. Effective management of this basin requires accurate streamflow forecasting, which has become increasingly important. This study delves into streamflow forecasting using historical data from five major river stations, covering the upper reaches in the East and middle sections. The dataset spans from 1978 to 2020 and undergoes rigorous screening and preparation, including normalization using StandardScaler. The research adopts a comprehensive approach, developing models for training on 70% of historical data, validation on the most current 15%, and testing against future targets with another 15% of the data. To achieve precise predictions, a suite of machine learning models is employed, including CatBoost, LGBM (Light Gradient Boosting Machine), Random Forest, and XGBoost. Performance evaluation of these models relies on key indices such as mean squared error (MSE), mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), root mean square percent error (RMSPE), normalized root mean squared error (NRMSE), and R-squared (R2). Notably, among these models, Random Forest emerges as the most robust for streamflow prediction, showcasing its effectiveness in handling the complexities of hydrological forecasting. This research contributes significantly to the field of streamflow forecasting in the Narmada River basin by providing insights into the performance of various machine learning models. The findings not only enhance our understanding of watershed dynamics but also highlight the pivotal role that machine learning can play in improving hydrological forecasting for sustainable watershed management.

Vegetation pattern and topography determine erosion characteristics in a semi‐arid sandstone hillslope‐gully system

AbstractThe hillslope‐gully system serves as the primary contributor to both runoff and sediment yield. The WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) model is often applied to investigate erosion characteristics at hillslope scale, demonstrating a high level of accuracy in simulating water erosion. In this study, according to in situ field monitoring (2014–2020) at a Pisha sandstone hillslope on the Loess Plateau, China, a total of 50 rainfall events’ data were used as climatic data to calibrate the soil parameters, and 11 different vegetation patterns and four slope gradients of hillslope‐gully systems were installed as inputs for the management and slope data, respectively. In systems A, B, C and D, the hillslope gradients were defined as 5°, 8°, 10° and 12° and the gully gradients as 15°, 20°, 25° and 30°, respectively. The results showed that the steeper the slope, the more severe the erosion. However, there was a critical value for the effect of slope on runoff. When the slope exceeded 8° and the gully exceeded 20°, the runoff no longer increased further and even decreased. The reduction in runoff in hillslope‐gully systems was in the following order (in mm): system D (3.4 ± 0.14) > system C (3.4 ± 0.14) > system B (3.39 ± 0.14) > system A (3.12 ± 0.13). Increasing vegetation cover could reduce erosion. Differences in runoff between vegetation patterns were not significant (p > 0.05) and ranged from 8% to 26%. However, there were significant differences in the sediment yield reduction benefits of different vegetation patterns (p < 0.05), ranging from 17% to 66%. It was observed that vegetation located in the lower slope produced a more pronounced effect in mitigating sediment when the degree of cover was the same. We conclude that implementing watershed management strategies based on the vegetation and topographic attributes of hillslope‐gully systems within the Loess Plateau, especially on Pisha sandstone hillslopes, serves as the fundamental approach to achieving sustainable watershed management.

Characterization and Identification of Major Constraints and Potentials of Kiltu Sorsa Watershed, in Guji Zone, Southern Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a country seriously affected by different natural resource degradation that included soil, vegetation, biodiversity and water degradation and climate deterioration. The study was conducted at Adola Rede District of Guji Zone, in Southern Ethiopia. The objectives of the study were to document baseline information on socioeconomic aspects and to document major biophysical and socio-economic constraints and potentials of the study watershed. The survey data were collected using key informant interview, focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews and guided field observations. A total of 60 respondents were selected for semi-structured interviews by means of simple random sampling methods. The majority (65%) of the respondent households were practiced physical and biological soil and water conservation activities. However, about 35% of the sampled households were not practiced soil and water conservation activities due to lack of awareness, lack of materials and labor. In the study watershed five major constraints such as land and soil related constraints, production related constraints, institutional and infrastructure related constraints, livestock related constraints and socio-economic related constraints were identified. However, suitable agro-ecology, availability of labor force, youth and women associations and informal institutions were the major identified potentials in the study watershed. Therefore, by using the potentials/opportunities of the study watershed and through providing quality extension services and training on soil and water conservation practices it is possible to enhance farmers participation and technical limitations. Moreover, for sustainable watershed management of the study area different soil and water conservation structures are very significant in various land use system of the study watershed through active participation of the local communities.

The Impact of Urban Land Use Changes on the Morphology of the New Calabar River Catchment, Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria

The New Calabar River catchment has experienced significant alterations in land use and land cover patterns due to the fast population growth in Port Harcourt. This research investigated the influence of urban land use change on the morphological structure of the New Calabar River basin, which is experiencing rapid urbanization in Rivers State. The research utilized a combination of primary and secondary data sources, specifically satellite imagery and field measurements of the hydro-geomorphic channel's breadth and depth. The findings indicated a significant rise in urbanization, resulting in the encroachment upon various land uses, including water bodies, farmlands, dense forests, and wetlands. Moreover, correlation and regression analysis revealed a significant positive link between channel morphology, discharge, and urbanization index. Therefore, it can be argued that the urbanization index and discharge are crucial in determining the river channel's current channel form and size features. The study also demonstrated a positive correlation between discharge and channel dimensions, including width and depth. The stream channel has experienced an expansion in reaction to the modification of the natural soil caused by urbanization, leading to changes in the stream flow regime. Additionally, it has been observed that the segment of the New Calabar River that encompasses urbanized regions tends to have a comparatively more significant cross-sectional channel. Incorporating urbanization analysis and its impact on morphology has facilitated the implementation of diverse geospatial analyses and sustainable watershed management in the basin.

Enhancing watershed management through adaptive source apportionment under a changing environment

Effective watershed management hinges on understanding water sources and pollution origins. In the Hangbu Watershed of Chaohu Lake, China, we analyze pollution source patterns and propose an adaptive strategy. This adaptive strategy is defined as a flexible and dynamic approach that adjusts management practices and policies in response to evolving environmental conditions and emerging data on pollution sources. The analysis includes examining the trends, periodicity, and mutagenicity of pollution sources. The results demonstrated substantial variations in sources, with nitrogen and phosphorus. The adaptive approach enables prioritizing crucial pollution sources, with farmland identified as a significant contributor under varying conditions. Specific pollution sources with growth trends and control robustness have been recognized as vital contributors, even though their contributions to the nitrogen and phosphorus flux at the watershed outlets may not be the most prominent. The results of this study could guide the sustainable management of watersheds.

Precipitation, topography, and soil conservation measures determine the spatiotemporal pattern of sediment yield at the regional scale

Exploring the driving effects of control factors on changes in sediment yield from a watershed perspective is of paramount importance for refined watershed management. The objective of this research is to unveil the spatiotemporal variation of sediment yield in the Coarse Sandy Hilly Catchments (CSHC) region from 1956 to 2019 and further investigate the relationship between sediment yield and driving factors. The findings revealed that the mutation years of sediment load (SL) at Toudaoguai and Longmen stations were 1986 and 1996, respectively, with annual SL declining by 66.75 % and 79.04 % after the mutation. Water and sediment discharge at Toudaoguai station exhibited more consistent fluctuations over time, while water and sediment discharge at Longmen station remained relatively consistent before 1967, followed by an entirely inconsistent trend. The spatial pattern of the annual average specific sediment yield (SSY) indicated that the northwest watersheds had a relatively higher erosion rate compared to the southeast. Over time, the SSY of each watershed exhibited a decreasing trend. The SSY showed significant negative correlations with terrace, afforestation, topographic position index (TPI), grass planting (GP), and elevation, while demonstrating significant positive correlations with rainfall indicators and runoff depth. Changes in precipitation, topography, vegetation and engineering measures accounted for 58.5 % of the variance in SSY. The total impact of precipitation on SSY change was positive (standard path coefficient (SPC) = 0.567, P < 0.01), whereas the total impact of topography, vegetation measures, and engineering measures on SSY change was negative (SPC = -0.282, −0.231, and −0.087, respectively). This study quantified the impact of different types of controlling factors on sediment yield at the watershed level. The insights provided by these results can contribute to sustainable watershed management and the optimal allocation of soil and water conservation measures (SWCMs).

Sustainable Watershed Management: Assessing the Impact of Data Precision on Sediment Transport in the Oostanaula Creek Watershed, Tennessee

This study applies the WaTEM/SEDEM model, a watershed-scale model based on the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), to enhance sustainable watershed management by identifying high-erosion-risk areas for targeted mitigation at various scales. It focuses on identifying potential errors in using statewide or worldwide land use data layers derived from remote-sensing algorithms and inaccuracies in the spatial distribution of cropland and soil types resulting in misinterpretation of sediment yields. These model limitations emphasize the need for field validation and precise input data, particularly stream data, to improve the reliability of these models. The study examines hydrologic rainfall-runoff processes in Tennessee’s 182 km2 Oostanaula catchment using various data sources, including the National Land Cover Database (NLCD), the European Space Agency WorldCover dataset (ESA), and manual field surveys. Three modeling scenarios were evaluated, with and without stream topology corrections, using the WaTEM/SEDEM model. It details the global data used, the methodology of the field survey, the simulation and validation of data, and the critical point identification. Significant discrepancies in long-term sediment transport predictions were found, depending on the land use data source. This study addresses watershed model validity and potential errors and recommendations for the use of globally available data.

Development of Decision Support System (DSS) for surface runoff and erosion control structures planning: a case study in the Upper Citarum Watershed & towards sustainability inland waters ecosystem

The watershed ecosystem is a complex system in which there are numerous transportation and transfer mechanisms of mass and energy. To make management more effective in all national critical watersheds, there needs to be more scientific, evidence-based policymaking that is based on an understanding of the system and mechanisms of the socio-hydrological processes of the watershed. The availability of Decision Support System (DSS) technology can be the appropriate approach to this need because DSS can be an interface between scientific and practical needs (easy-to-use, easy-to-access, user-friendly). However, the availability and implementation of DSS as an important tool in the optimal design of sustainable watershed management in Indonesia are still very limited. This study aims to create a prototype DSS that practitioners and policymakers can use to identify priority areas and optimize technical solutions for controlling surface runoff and soil erosion at various scales in the internal watershed. Herein, the spatial-based numerical modeling system and process mechanism; the database and knowledge; and the Graphical User Interface (GUI) are the three main components that have been used as a framework for model-based DSS development. A distributed rainfall-runoff-erosion model (EcoHydro) is the main engine of DSS for spatially quantifying dimensions of hydrological responses, erosion rate, and sediment production according to the user’s specifications and providing design options for control measures of them. The upper Citarum river basin in West Java, which is a critical and first national priority watershed, has been selected as the case study for DSS development and to demonstrate its application. Furthermore, the resulting DSS can later be developed for use in watersheds and other nationally critical lakes.

Integrated watershed management strategies for sustainable resource utilization using the SWAT model: case study of the Kalte River watershed, Rift Valley Basin, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Most people who live in rural areas are highly dependent on shared access to natural resources including land, water, and forests for their food requirements and livelihoods. However, land degradation remains one of the biggest environmental problems worldwide. Therefore, this study proposed to develop integrated watershed management strategies for sustainable resource utilization in the Kalte River watershed. To achieve this, the SWAT model was simulated for 31 years (1992–2022), calibrated and validated at Wajifo and Humbo hydrological stations to determine the sediment and runoff from the watershed, highly sediment erosion-vulnerable part of the watershed was identified from the result of the model and the best watershed management practice was suggested for the study watershed. In total, 87,920 tons/year of sediment are yielded to Lake Abaya from the Kalte River watershed. The sediment yield was reduced by terracing at 64%, strip cropping at 59.32%, grassed waterway at 54.06%, and contour planting at 47.93%. Therefore, the highest efficiency management method in the Kalte River watershed is terracing. The watershed managers and scientific community are beneficiaries of the output of this study. Watershed managers and decision-makers can make use of the information to help them choose appropriate watershed management strategies and ensure sustainable watershed management.

Anzali Wetland, Iran’s “Ecological Gem,” May Dry Up by 2060

More sustainable watershed management and agriculture are needed to avoid a desiccated fate.

Hydrogeochemical characterization, quality assessment, and potential nitrate health risk of shallow groundwater in Dongwen River Basin, North China.

Assessing groundwater geochemical formation processes and pollution circumstances is significant for sustainable watershed management. In the present study, 58 shallow groundwater samples were taken from the Dongwen River Basin (DRB) to comprehensively assess the hydrochemical sources, groundwater quality status, and potential risks of NO3- to human health. Based on the Box and Whisker plot, the cation's concentration followed the order of Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+, while anions' mean levels were HCO3- > SO42- > NO3- > Cl-. The NO3- level in groundwater samples fluctuated between 4.2 and 301.3mg/L, with 67.2% of samples beyond the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria (50mg/L) for drinking. The Piper diagram indicated the hydrochemical type of groundwater and surface water were characterized as Ca·Mg-HCO3 type. Combining ionic ratio analysis with principal component analysis (PCA) results, agricultural activities contributed a significant effect on groundwater NO3-, with soil nitrogen input and manure/sewage inputs also potential sources. However, geogenic processes (e.g., carbonates and evaporite dissolution/precipitation) controlled other ion compositions in the study area. The groundwater samples with higher NO3- values were mainly found in river valley regions with intense anthropogenic activities. The entropy weight water quality index (EWQI) model identified that the groundwater quality rank ranged from excellent (70.7%) and good (25.9%) to medium (3.4%). However, the hazard quotient (HQ) used in the human health risk assessment (HHRA) model showed that above 91.38% of groundwater samples have a NO3- non-carcinogenic health risk for infants, 84.48% for children, 82.76% for females, and 72.41% for males. The findings of this study could provide a scientific basis for the rational development and usage of groundwater resources as well as for the preservation of the inhabitants' health in DRB.

A systematic literature review about local wisdom and sustainability: Contribution and recommendation to science education

The theme “local wisdom, sustainability, and education” attracted the attention of researchers, and the number of publications began to increase, making it interesting to study. This systematic literature review (SLR) aims to review various research published in journals indexed in Scopus database related to the theme “local wisdom, sustainability, and education”. The review focuses on publication trends as well as the contributions and recommendations that can be obtained. Disbursement was focused on the largest database in the world (Scopus), where 186 articles were obtained. preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis model was used to obtain suitable articles, so that finally only 10 articles met the criteria to be analyzed. We obtained data that the dominant research was conducted using a qualitative approach or method. There is no dominant author, and all authors are not related to each other. Local wisdom and sustainability “meet” in the word Indonesia, showing Indonesia’s position and urgency in this study. The theme “local wisdom, sustainability, and education” is still not an interesting issue asking for international collaboration, so research collaboration is still local. We discuss all the findings. We also discuss the contributions and recommendations of the 10 articles analyzed, which can be grouped into aspects of sustainable agriculture, sustainable watershed management, implementation of environmental education curricula, and teacher professionalism development. Contributions and recommendations are aimed at all aspects of education (both formal, non-formal and informal education). Findings can be a consideration or baseline for researchers to study theme of “local wisdom, sustainability, and education” according to their respective backgrounds and objectives.

TECHNICAL AND COST ANALYSIS OF FLOOD CONTROL PLANNING USING THE ECODRAINS-BASED SPONGE VILLAGE MODEL IN THE KAMONING SAMPANG WATERSHED

The Kali Kamoning Watershed in Sampang Regency, spanning 35,421.15 Ha, experiences annual major floods affecting Sampang City. Despite various attempts and budget allocations at different administrative levels, flooding remains a persistent issue. A proposed solution is the implementation of an Ecodrains-based sponge village model for flood control, specifically targeting upstream areas like Karang Penang, Robatal, Kedungdung, Omben, and Sampang sub-districts. The model, cost-effective and easy to construct, utilizes the HEC-HMS software for technical analysis, simulating river capacity and calculating flood reduction. The sponge village model demonstrates a substantial reduction of flooding by 73.14%, equivalent to 326.3 m3/sec. The Q25th flood discharge measures 446.1 m3/sec. Estimated construction costs using the SNI method amount to IDR 917,588,260,000, aiming to control the Q25th flood. This innovative approach offers a promising strategy for mitigating flooding in Sampang City through sustainable watershed management and cost-efficient infrastructure development. Key terms: Watershed, Flood Reduction, Ecodrains, Sponge Village Model, HEC-HMS, Q25th, Construction Costs.

Watershed Management for Sustainable Livelihoods: Integrating Local Pond Ecosystems in Malda, West Bengal

This research article explores the intricate relationship between watershed management, local pond ecosystems, and sustainable livelihoods in the Malda district of West Bengal. The study investigates the potential of integrating local pond ecosystems into watershed management strategies as a means to enhance economic prosperity, ecological resilience, and community well-being. Through a multidisciplinary approach, combining ecological assessments, socioeconomic surveys, and participatory engagement, the research aims to provide insights into the synergies that exist between watershed management practices and the sustainable livelihoods of the local villagers. The research methodology involves field studies encompassing hydrological analysis, biodiversity assessments, and community consultations, aimed at understanding the dynamics of local pond ecosystems and their interconnectedness with the broader watershed. Special attention is given to the diverse ecosystem services provided by these ponds, such as water provisioning, nutrient cycling, and supporting aquatic biodiversity, and how they contribute to the overall resilience of the watershed. The findings of this study are expected to contribute valuable information for policymakers, environmental practitioners, and local communities in Malda district, offering a comprehensive understanding of how the integration of local pond ecosystems into watershed management plans can foster sustainable livelihoods. The article discusses potential strategies for optimizing the co-management of these resources, balancing the ecological health of the ponds with the socioeconomic needs of the local population. Ultimately, this research aims to provide a blueprint for sustainable watershed management practices that prioritize the conservation and utilization of local pond ecosystems, fostering a harmonious balance between ecological integrity and the livelihood aspirations of the communities in Malda, West Bengal.

PEMODELAN DEBIT SUNGAI MENGGUNAKAN SOIL AND WATER ASSESSMENT TOOL DI SUBDAS MAMASA

ABSTRACT&#x0D; Issues related to watershed have received primary attention in the past few decades. The hydrological conditions of the watershed area are considered crucial as a source of life. In efforts to achieve sustainable watershed management, understanding the complex hydrological dynamics is very important. The objective of this research is to simulate river discharge using the Soil and Water Assessment Tools (SWAT) model. This study was conducted in the Mamasa Sub-watershed area. The results show that the river discharge in the Mamasa Sub-watershed has increased as it approaches the outlet (downstream) through the accumulation of discharge in larger order rivers. The Mamasa Sub-watershed also experiences a trend of increasing average annual discharge at a rate of 0.74 m3/s per year. Improvement in the discharge simulation results was achieved through a calibration process using 11 parameters. The calibration results indicate that the calibrated discharge has a higher R2 value compared to the initial simulation discharge, showing that the model calibration successfully improved the quality of the expected discharge results to reach 79.50 percent. However, the calibration results still have a low R2 value, influenced by the selection of appropriate parameters and accurate observational data.&#x0D; Keywords: Modeling, River discharge, SWAT, Watershed

Assessment of Physico-Chemical and Microbiological Parameters of Mthatha River in Eastern Cape, South Africa

Mthatha River is the main source of water for the fast-growing population of Mthatha communities and its surrounding. Human resident settlements, livestock grazing and watering, subsistence farming and commercial activities are the main water and land use activities in the catchment. Using the environmental forensic method, this study was carried out to assess water quality in Mthatha River and its selected tributaries for different uses (drinking and domestic use) and identify potential pollution sources. Seven sampling points were purposively selected for water quality testing along Mthatha River and the tributaries. Data was collected during wet and dry seasons of the year 2021. Microbiological and physico-chemical parameters were measured in this study. Microbiological samples (i.e., Total coliform and E. coli) were analysed in the laboratory within 24 h. Physico-chemical parameters (Dissolved Oxygen, water temperature, pH, Electrical Conductivity, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids and Nitrate) were measured in-situ. Multivariate statistical analysis, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Pearson’s correlation analysis were employed to analyse the data using SPSS version 22, Primer version 7 and MS Excel 2013.The pH, turbidity and nitrate were found to be higher during wet season than dry season. Extremely high microbiological indicators (E. coli and total coliform counts) were recorded during both seasons and exceeding the WHO and DWAF permissible limits. The study also found that agricultural activities in the upper reaches of the river and a combination of refuse dumping and sewage pollution in the mid-stream section are the main causes of changes in the water quality of the Mthatha River and its tributaries. An assessment and monitoring of the river water quality is necessary for the Mthatha community and to communicate information on water quality for sustainable watershed management practices.

Influence of human-induced land use change on hydrological processes in semi-humid and semi-arid region: A case in the Fenhe River Basin

Study Region: The Fenhe River Basin (FRB) is an important tributary of the Yellow River Basin and locate in a semi-arid and semi-humid region in northwest China. Over the past four decades, significant anthropogenic activities have resulted in significant land use and land cover change (LUCC) that have markedly impacted hydrological processes in FRB.Study Focus: To analyze land use changes under multiple historical land use scenarios from LU1980 to LU2015, and to establish the Water and Energy transfer Processes in Large basins (WEP-L) model to quantify the influences of LUCC on hydrological processes, particularly on baseflow.New hydrological insights for the region: LUCC from LU1980 to LU2015 resulted in a 14.5 % increase in water yield (WY) and a 2.7 % and 1.4 % decrease in baseflow (BF) and evapotranspiration, respectively. Urbanization led to a significant increase in WY and a reduction in BF, exhibiting strong spatial gradients between urban centers and their peripheries. Increases in forestland decreased WY, while ET showed no significant change due to large absolute values and moisture limitations. Furthermore, the response of BF to forest cover exhibits spatial variation. A negative correlation between BF and forest cover was evident in upstream, whereas no significant correlation was observed in downstream. The findings of this study offer valuable insights for land use planning and sustainable watershed management in semi-arid semi-humid region.

Comprehensive effects of climate, land use/cover and management practices on runoff and nutrient variations in a rapidly urbanizing watershed

As non-point source pollution has emerged as a significant global and regional concern, climate change (CC), land use/cover transformation (LUCT), and management practices (MP) play vital roles in addressing nutrient pollution. However, current studies lack comprehensive quantification and consistent conclusions on the response to these factors, especially for management practices. To quantify and elucidate the impact of representative environmental factors on rapidly urbanizing regions, this study focused on the Shenzhen River, which serves as the most typical urbanizing watershed. Using a process-based distributed hydrological model with a factor-controlled simulation method, we identified significant differences in nutrient concentrations and the impacts of climate variability, land use/cover changes, and anthropogenic interventions from 2003 to 2020. Moreover, effective measures greatly improved water quality in the Shenzhen River during study period, as evident from trend and cluster analysis. However, ecological water supplements implemented since 2016 have led to a slight reduction in simulated runoff performance, and CC may amplify the synergistic effects of precipitation and temperature on the river system. While the implemented practices have been effective in reducing total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) loads, strong TN pollution control is still needed in rapidly urbanizing areas due to the results of land use/cover type changes. Our findings emphasize the intricate interplay among CC, LUCT, and MP in shaping water quality and hydrological processes in rapidly urbanizing watersheds, and clarify the independent effects of these factors on nutrients. This study contributes to a better understanding of the complex interactions between multiple factors in watersheds and provides guidance for sustainable watershed management.

Drivers and impacts of land use and land cover changes on ecosystem services provided by the watersheds in the Philippines: a systematic literature review

This study investigates the drivers and impacts of land use and land cover (LULC) changes on ecosystem services provided by the Philippine watersheds, aiming to enhance understanding of sustainable watershed management and land use planning in the country. A systematic literature review assessed LULC change studies from 2013 to 2022. Notably, among the category of ecosystem services, regulating services such as hydrologic regulation and soil erosion control received significant attention, while provisioning services, supporting services and cultural services received comparatively less attention. However, in general, considering the trend of watershed degradation in the country, the studies conducted linking the impacts of land use and land cover change on watershed ecosystem services are relatively few. Also, the impacts of land use and land cover change on watershed ecosystem services were not elaborately explored and mostly centered on either a single or selected ecosystem services. This suggests that a more holistic approach in assessing the impacts of land use and land cover change on the watershed ecosystem services can be considered for future studies. The primary drivers of LULC change were agricultural expansion, urbanization and human settlements, population factors, forest conversion, agricultural demand and profit motives. Among these, urbanization and human settlements were most frequently mentioned. The main impacts of LULC changes on watershed ecosystem services were associated with hydrologic processes. These findings have implications for future research, land use planning, and decision-making processes, aiming to advance sustainable watershed management and preserve ecosystem services.

The Application of Drone Technology in Micro-Watershed Evaluation

The application of drone technology in micro-watershed evaluation in Sub- Saharan Africa may potentially attract sustainable management of watersheds and limit practices that encourage pollution, erosion, flooding, deforestation and afforestation, among others. This paper employs data from literature sources to establish the significance of adopting drone application technology in the evaluation of micro-watersheds in Kenya to discourage the alteration of the specified ecosystems and enhance their general functioning. Of the reviewed literature, 80% sources were from developed nations; and 20% were from developing countries. The results suggest that the application of drones in micro-watershed evaluation has a wide range of benefits; including the provision of real time assessment, offering comprehensive visual information, enhancing agricultural productivity, enhancing decision-making capabilities; promoting optimal and sustainable utilization of resources; promoting improved food security and socio-economic wellbeing; attracting cost effectiveness; fostering innovation; promoting efficient data collection; reducing crop and environmental damages; ensuring controlled utilization of agricultural inputs; and the provision of accurate data, large amount of data, and real-time data. Moreover, the application of drones in micro-watersheds ensures unlimited coverage, high accuracy and speed; endurance and controlled range; and replicability and availability. The results conclude that drones are useful, reliable and effective in the evaluation of micro-watersheds, and may thus protect watersheds from being altered.