Sustainable Shipping Research Articles

A theory-driven identification and ranking of the critical success factors of sustainable shipping management

Abstract Sustainable shipping management (SSM) is arguably the most challenging issue that shipping companies faced for the coming years. Hence, examining the critical success factors (CSFs) of SSM is vital. Although previous research mainly focused on the motives and implication of SSM, practical research that proposes how SSM can be implemented is still lacking. Therefore, this study fills the gap by identifying and ranking the CSFs of SSM with a theory-driven approach. The CSFs were developed through the theoretical lenses of five organisational theories, namely, stakeholder theory, resource-based view theory, relational-view theory, innovation diffusion theory, and contingency (fit) theory. Based on these theories, this study proposes stakeholders' focus, intra-firm management, inter-firm collaboration, new technology acceptance, and strategic fit as the CSFs of SSM. Further, 20 sub-criteria were identified to operationalise the CSFs. A survey questionnaire was pretested and then administered to 36 shipping companies in Vietnam. Thereafter, the obtained data were analysed using fuzzy analytic hierarchy process. The findings show that the CSFs of SSM, in descending order of their importance, are (1) stakeholders' focus, (2) intra-firm management, (3) new technology acceptance, (4) inter-firm collaboration, and (5) strategic fit. Moreover, results of this study show that among the sub-criteria of SSM, the most important ones are primarily related to monetary resources and tangible infrastructures and equipment. Additionally, SSM implementation in shipping companies can be improved by addressing the needs of stakeholders and aligning SSM activities with shipping companies' strategies.

Discerning sustainability approaches in shipping

Sustainability should be viewed as the ultimate goal of human beings. However, the reality is still not optimistic. Over the years, sustainability in shipping has attracted growing attention through green or sustainable shipping, similar to sustainable development and green development being the prominent approaches to sustainability in development. However, the concepts of green or sustainable shipping, as well as those for green or sustainable development, remain vague. This paper thus distinguishes these four seemingly similar but essentially different concepts with respect to their theoretical bases, objectives, and implications through a structured literature review. Many have discussed the concept of sustainable development, while only a few have explored these concepts for green development, sustainable shipping, and green shipping. The main difference between sustainable and green development is whether or not the method is anthropocentric: the former emphasizes satisfying the needs of the present and future generations, while the latter is non-anthropocentric or eco-centric, focusing on conserving the health of nature. We argue that green shipping should follow the concept of green development. It is a better approach to reach sustainability than sustainable shipping which follows sustainable development. Finally, a definition of green shipping is proposed for the consideration of sustainability by decision-makers.

Embracing Sustainability in Shipping: Assessing Industry’s Adaptations Incited by the, Newly, Introduced ‘triple bottom line’ Approach to Sustainable Maritime Development

Increasing environmental, social and economic problems, born by unceasing economic growth, have transformed our approach to the development concept. The 1980s saw the appearance of the sustainable development term and, during the 1990s, sustainability notion was implicitly framed as an integrated concept, frequently, termed as the ‘triple bottom line’ approach. Among several initiatives and efforts to balance our economic and societal pursuits with environmental challenges the, lately, introduced United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) refer to a remarkable evolution, which came to strengthen and establish sustainability conception as an integrated social, economic and environmental triptych. International shipping, as the major carrier of world trade and significant contributor to environmental degradation has, definitely, a vital role to play in facilitating the UN’s sustainability venture. Although there is a great amount of legislative instruments, codes and guidance to address sustainability in shipping, though, limited research has been devoted to identify how the tanker and dry bulk maritime sector has responded to such recent cohesive attitude to sustainable maritime development. Through a quantitative research approach this empirical study aimed to investigate maritime industry’s insights and attitudes in relation to the, newly, introduced triple bottom line approach to global sustainable development. Research data were collected via a questionnaire survey conducted to 50 tanker and/or dry bulk shipping companies. Pearson’s chi-square test of independence and Spearman’s correlation coefficient measures were utilized to test our three formulated hypotheses. Findings highlighted increasing awareness and adaptation of the maritime sector to the triple bottom line approach and, subsequent, sustainability absorption under the auspices of a corporate social responsibility (CSR) business model. Introduction of sustainable development in an integrated manner appears to have influenced the extent that statutory maritime regulations occupy to the formulation of marine safety management systems. To sum up, the integrated management system model turned out to be the most rated tactic to manage sustainability and, as such, a conceptual CSR framework was proposed to facilitate such an objective.

A taxonomy of resources for sustainable shipping management: Their interrelationships and effects on business performance

Managing sustainability is a topical issue faced by shipping companies. Rooted on resource theories, the objective of this study is to design a taxonomy of resources that improves sustainable shipping management and examine their interrelationships and effects on sustainable shipping management and business performance. Survey and financial data were collected from 162 shipping companies and analysed using structural equation modelling. The results reveal the following three categories of resources that enhance sustainable shipping management and, subsequently, business performance: (1) intrafirm resources, (2) interfirm relationship management resources and (3) organisational learning resources. Theoretical and managerial implications of our findings are discussed.

Effects of ship emissions on air quality in the Baltic Sea region simulated with three different chemistry transport models

Abstract. The Baltic Sea is a highly frequented shipping area with busy shipping lanes close to densely populated regions. Exhaust emissions from ship traffic into the atmosphere do not only enhance air pollution, they also affect the Baltic Sea environment through acidification and eutrophication of marine waters and surrounding terrestrial ecosystems. As part of the European BONUS project SHEBA (Sustainable Shipping and Environment of the Baltic Sea region), the transport, chemical transformation and fate of atmospheric pollutants in the Baltic Sea region were simulated with three regional chemistry transport model (CTM) systems, CMAQ, EMEP/MSC-W and SILAM, with grid resolutions between 4 and 11 km. The main goal was to quantify the effect that shipping emissions have on the regional air quality in the Baltic Sea region when the same shipping emission dataset but different CTMs are used in their typical set-ups. The performance of these models and the shipping contribution to the results of the individual models were evaluated for sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and particulate matter (PM2.5). Model results from the three CTMs for total air pollutant concentrations were compared to observations from rural and urban background stations of the AirBase monitoring network in the coastal areas of the Baltic Sea region. Observed PM2.5 in summer was underestimated strongly by CMAQ and to some extent by EMEP/MSC-W. Observed PM2.5 in winter was underestimated by SILAM. In autumn all models were in better agreement with observed PM2.5. The spatial average of the annual mean O3 in the EMEP/MSC-W simulation was ca. 20 % higher compared to the other two simulations, which is mainly the consequence of using a different set of boundary conditions for the European model domain. There are significant differences in the calculated ship contributions to the levels of air pollutants among the three models. EMEP/MSC-W, with the coarsest grid, predicted weaker ozone depletion through NO emissions in the proximity of the main shipping routes than the other two models. The average contribution of ships to PM2.5 levels in coastal land areas is in the range of 3.1 %–5.7 % for the three CTMs. Differences in ship-related PM2.5 between the models are mainly attributed to differences in the schemes for inorganic aerosol formation. Differences in the ship-related elemental carbon (EC) among the CTMs can be explained by differences in the meteorological conditions, atmospheric transport processes and the applied wet-scavenging parameterizations. Overall, results from the present study show the sensitivity of the ship contribution to combined uncertainties in boundary conditions, meteorological data and aerosol formation and deposition schemes. This is an important step towards a more reliable evaluation of policy options regarding emission regulations for ship traffic and the planned introduction of a nitrogen emission control area (NECA) in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea in 2021.

A contingency view of the effects of sustainable shipping exploitation and exploration on business performance

Anchored to the resource-based view, this study identifies the types of sustainable shipping capabilities that can be pursued and developed by shipping companies to enhance their business performance. The paper also examines internal and external contextual factors that moderate the relationship between the identified shipping capabilities and business performance. Survey data were collected from 225 shipping companies with business offices in Singapore and analysed using structural equation modelling and a multiple-sample approach. The results show that both sustainable shipping exploitation and exploration capabilities have positive effects on business performance. Organisational slack and environmental uncertainty negatively moderate the relationship between sustainable exploitation capability and business performance but positively moderate the relationship between sustainable exploration capability and business performance. The results imply that sustainable shipping should be viewed as a dynamic capability rather than a set of practices, which connote stasis. In addition, management policies to develop sustainable exploitation or exploration capabilities should depend on the internal and external environment of shipping companies. This paper introduces an alternative theoretical lens through which to manage and improve the allocation of organisational resources to enhance corporate sustainability and business performance of shipping companies.

A genetic algorithm-based grey-box model for ship fuel consumption prediction towards sustainable shipping

In order to enhance sustainability in maritime shipping, shipping companies spend good efforts in improving the operational energy efficiency of existing ships. Accurate fuel consumption prediction model is a prerequisite of such operational improvements. Existing grey-box models (GBMs) are found with significant performance potential for ship fuel consumption prediction, although having a limitation of separating weather directions. Aiming to overcome this limitation, we propose a novel genetic algorithm-based GBM (GA-based GBM), where ship fuel consumption is modelled in a procedure based on basic principles of ship propulsion and the unknown parameters in this model are estimated with a GA-based procedure. Real ship operation data from a crude oil tanker over a 7-year sailing period are used to demonstrate the accuracy and reliability of the proposed model. To highlight the contribution of this work, we compare the proposed model against the latest GBM. The results show that the fitting performance of the proposed model is remarkably better, especially for oblique weather directions. The proposed model can be employed as a basis of ship energy efficiency management programs to reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of a ship. This is beneficial to achieve the goal of sustainable shipping.

Attributional life cycle assessment of biofuels for shipping: Addressing alternative geographical locations and cultivation systems

The purpose of this study is to evaluate a life cycle assessment of straight vegetable oil (SVO) and biodiesel addressing alternative upstream pathways. The pathways are SVO and biodiesel produced in the United Kingdom (UK) using European rapeseed and also, SVO and biodiesel produced in the UK using soybean grain and soybean oil imported from Argentina. Four environmental impact categories have been assessed using the SimaPro (ReCiPe life-cycle impact assessment) method: this includes global warming potential (GWP); acidification; eutrophication and particulate matter. Rapeseed based biofuel had the lowest emission impact in terms of GHG emissions. Significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can result from land use change due to the expansion and cultivation of soybean in Argentina. When land use change is not considered, the soy based biofuel system has the lowest GHG impact with more than 70% GHG emission reduction. The GHG emission at cultivation stage far outweighs the impacts of the other life-cycle stages irrespective of the feedstock used for the biofuel production systems. The use of fertilizers and associated soil emissions are the main contributors. The environmental impacts of biofuel can be reduced by avoiding land use change, improving soil management practices and yield, and also optimizing transportation routes. Effective implementation of options for biofuels production were explored to improve sustainability in shipping.

Current strategic planning for sustainability in international shipping

Sustainability is a necessity for the future earth. As international shipping, the lifeblood of the global economy, moves toward door-to-door, strategic planning for sustainability of such movements becomes extremely important and challenging. Extant research on strategic planning for sustainability in shipping is rare. This study adopts a structured literature review in conjunction with content analysis to identify whether the existing strategic planning encourages sustainability in international shipping. A broad review of maritime logistics is also conducted to understand whether its strategic planning contributes to sustainability. Key findings include (1) the most strategic planning in shipping is limited to “port-to-port”; (2) the efforts of strategic planning toward sustainability in shipping are fragmented; (3) maritime logistics represents an active research area but lags behind in strategic planning; (4) proactive efforts to encourage green or sustainable maritime logistics have emerged; and (5) the research gaps include the distinction between the terms of sustainability, “green,” and “sustainable,” and the lack of an appropriate approach, methods, and a collaborative research-practice network of strategic planning for sustainability in international shipping. The findings suggest directions for future research to make international shipping fit for the sustainability challenge.

Predictability of storm wave heights in the ice-free Beaufort Sea

A predictability study on wave forecast of the Arctic Ocean is necessary to help identify hazardous areas and ensure sustainable shipping along the trans-Arctic routes. To assist with validation of the Arctic Ocean wave model, two drifting wave buoys were deployed off Point Barrow, Alaska for two months in September 2016. Both buoys measured significant wave heights exceeding 4 m during two different storm events on 19 September and 22 October. The NOAA-WAVEWATCH IIIⓇ model with 16-km resolution was forced using wind and sea ice reanalysis data and obtained general agreement with the observation. The September storm was reproduced well; however, model accuracy deteriorated in October with a negative wave height bias of around 1 m during the October storm. Utilising reanalysis data, including the most up-to-date ERA5, this study investigated the cause: grid resolution, wind and ice forcing, and in situ sea level pressure observations assimilated for reanalysis. The analysis has found that there is a 20% reduction of in situ SLP observations in the area of interest, presumably due to fewer ships and deployment options during the sea ice advance period. The 63-member atmospheric ensemble reanalysis, ALERA2, has shown that this led to a larger ensemble spread in the October monthly mean wind field compared to September. Since atmospheric physics is complex during sea ice advance, it is speculated that the elevated uncertainty of synoptic-scale wind caused the negative wave model bias. This has implications for wave hindcasts and forecasts in the Arctic Ocean.

The effect of sustainable shipping practices on shippers’ loyalty: The mediating role of perceived value, trust and transaction cost

This study investigates the role of perceived value, trust, and transaction cost in mediating the effect of sustainable shipping practices (SSP) on shippers’ loyalty. Theoretical and alternative models were proposed and compared using survey data collected from 289 shippers. The results show that the relationship between SSP and shippers’ loyalty is mediated by shippers’ perceived value of SSP, shippers’ trust in a shipping company’s commitment towards sustainability, and sustainability-related transaction cost. This study offers an alternative theoretical explanation to the relationship and provides important managerial insights to strengthen shippers’ loyalty through implementing SSP.

Montenegro on the Path to Paris MoU Accession: Towards Achieving a Sustainable Shipping Industry

In order to ensure the sustainability of the shipping industry and marine ecosystem of Montenegro, it is necessary that Montenegro becomes a full member of the Paris Memorandum of Understanding (Paris MoU) on Port State Control. The reasons for doing so are numerous: the full adoption of standards stipulated by the Memorandum in relation to ship control; continuously keeping pace with, and development of, new standards in compliance with turbulent changes in the maritime industry and operation (including the increasing scope of maritime transport); the decrease in the number of detained ships which meet the requirements stipulated in international Conventions and the elimination of substandard ships in perspective; and the prevention of environmental pollution, and sea and port incidents. This justified endeavour is supported by the fact that Montenegro is one of two countries in Europe that are not full members of the Paris MoU. Additionally, in this context it is necessary to emphasise the fact that the marine ecosystem of Montenegro is an integral part of the world ocean. Accordingly, the improvement of the quality of national legislation which is compliant with international requirements is an imperative which has positive implications on regional and global sustainability.

A New Perspective at the Ship-Air-Sea-Interface: The Environmental Impacts of Exhaust Gas Scrubber Discharge

Shipping emissions are likely to increase significantly in the coming decades, alongside increasing emphasis on the sustainability and environmental impacts of the maritime transport sector. Exhaust gas cleaning systems (“scrubbers”), using seawater or fresh water as cleaning media for sulfur dioxide, are progressively used by shipping companies to comply with emissions regulations. Little is known about the chemical composition of the scrubber effluent and its ecological consequences for marine life and biogeochemical processes. If scrubbers become a central tool for atmospheric pollution reduction from shipping, modeling, and experimental studies will be necessary to determine the ecological and biogeochemical effects of scrubber wash water discharge on the marine environment. Furthermore, attention must be paid to the regulation and enforcement of environmental protection standards concerning scrubber use. Close collaboration between natural scientists and social scientists is crucial for progress toward sustainable shipping and protection of the marine environment.

Ways of implementing Corporate Social Responsibility idea in shipping companies

Creating a CSR strategy and preparing a sustainability report has become more and more popular among a wide range of branches including the blue economy. The aim of the paper is to identify joint maritime industry initiatives promoting socially responsible shipping companies and to point out areas of interest for Corporate Social Responsibility raised by shipowners. The research question was asked about the identification of possible ways of understanding and implementing sustainable ideas in shipping companies operating in container market. In order to answer that question the multi-case study of container shipowners was prepared. Significant disparities in the approach to CSR are evident. They depend on the specificity of the company, primarily on the size of tonnage at disposal and market presence strategies. Leading shipping companies in the field of CSR are shipowners with significant market shares. They refer to CSR standards, participate in sustainable shipping initiatives, create coherent strategies that skilfully combine environmental, social and business goals.

Antecedents and outcomes of sustainable shipping practices: The integration of stakeholder and behavioural theories

This paper analyses the drivers and outcomes of sustainable shipping practices through the lenses of stakeholder, planned behaviour, and resource dependence theories. Theoretical models were systematically developed and compared using survey data collected from 186 shipping companies. The results reveal that a shipping company’s stakeholder pressure, attitude, and behavioural control directly influence the adoption of sustainable shipping practices, and indirectly influence business performance. Furthermore, stakeholder pressure directly influences attitude, behavioural control, and business performance. This paper contributes to the integration of stakeholder and behavioural theories on sustainable practices. Strategies to improve the adoption of sustainable shipping practices are discussed.

Ship emissions and the use of current air cleaning technology: contributions to air pollution and acidification in the Baltic Sea

Abstract. The shipping sector is a significant contributor to emissions of air pollutants in marine and coastal regions. In order to achieve sustainable shipping, primarily through new regulations and techniques, greater knowledge of dispersion and deposition of air pollutants is required. Regional model calculations of the dispersion and concentration of sulfur, nitrogen, and particulate matter, as well as deposition of oxidized sulfur and nitrogen from the international maritime sector in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, have been made for the years 2011 to 2013. The contribution from shipping is highest along shipping lanes and near large ports for concentration and dry deposition. Sulfur is the most important pollutant coupled to shipping. The contribution of both SO2 concentration and dry deposition of sulfur represented up to 80 % of the total in some regions. WHO guidelines for annual concentrations were not trespassed for any analysed pollutant, other than PM2.5 in the Netherlands, Belgium, and central Poland. However, due to the resolution of the numerical model, 50 km × 50 km, there may be higher concentrations locally close to intense shipping lanes. Wet deposition is more spread and less sensitive to model resolution. The contribution of wet deposition of sulfur and nitrogen from shipping was up to 30 % of the total wet deposition. Comparison of simulated to measured concentration at two coastal stations close to shipping lanes showed some underestimations and missed maximums, probably due to resolution of the model and underestimated ship emissions. A change in regulation for maximum sulfur content in maritime fuel, in 2015 from 1 to 0.1 %, decreases the atmospheric sulfur concentration and deposition significantly. However, due to costs related to refining, the cleaning of exhausts through scrubbers has become a possible economic solution. Open-loop scrubbers meet the air quality criteria but their consequences for the marine environment are largely unknown. The resulting potential of future acidification in the Baltic Sea, both from atmospheric deposition and from scrubber water along the shipping lanes, based on different assumptions about sulfur content in fuel, scrubber usage, and increased shipping density has been assessed. The increase in deposition for different shipping and scrubber scenarios differs for the basins in the Baltic Sea, with highest potential of acidification in the southern basins with high traffic. The proportion of ocean-acidifying sulfur from ships increases when taking scrubber water into account and the major reason for increasing acidifying nitrogen from ships is increasing ship traffic. Also, with the implementation of emission control for nitrogen, the effect of scrubbers on acidification is evident. This study also generates a database of shipping and scrubber scenarios for atmospheric deposition and scrubber exhaust from the period 2011 to 2050.

Bridging islands and calming seas: A material flow management approach to sustainable sea transportation for Fiji's lower southern Lau islands

The relatively remote and geographically isolated lower southern Lau islands of Fiji rely on maritime transportation for their economic success and social wellbeing. This paper explores the feasibility of implementing a Material Flow Management (MFM) framework to sustainable shipping and the possibilities for addressing the socio-economic development needs of the relevant island communities. The research question is: how can a regional MFM framework for hybrid powered maritime vessels be implemented effectively to promote ecological quality improvements and local added value for Fiji's lower southern Lau islands? The mixed methods research uses a quasi-experimental design, with most data collected on site during a March 2015 field study of the lower southern Lau route. The findings are applied to a tailor-made MFM framework that demonstrate the viability and effectiveness in achieving seven key aims: (1) activate regional potential; (2) increase system efficiency; (3) decrease operating costs; (4) create stakeholder network; (5) create and maintain jobs; (6) support innovative small and medium enterprises (SMEs); and (7) create sustainable economy/society. The results validate the MFM framework as a potential model of sustainable sea transport for this particular route that can be expanded upon for other domestic and regional shipping routes. The author concludes that further research and the development of pertinent socio-economic indicators based on these findings will support a more robust MFM model as it applies to sustainable sea transport.

Alternative fuel for sustainable shipping across the Taiwan Strait

We conducted a total fuel life-cycle inventory for atmospheric emissions for two ships operating between Mainland China and Taiwan, comparing the difference that may result from operating on heavy fuel oil (HFO) and on liquefied natural gas (LNG) as fuels. In addition, we assess the global warming impact from these two fueling alternatives. We use a commercially available life-cycle assessment (LCA) software to conduct a life-cycle inventory of airborne emissions from the ship fuel use. Our findings indicate possible improvement in total fuel-life-cycle GHG emissions from the use of LNG as alternative fuel to power ships. While total GHG and CO2 emission reduced, however, methane emissions increased significantly when LNG is used as alternative fuel to power both of our case ships. Both ships exhibit great reduction in the emissions of NOx (38–39%) and CO (42–43%). The reduction is much more remarkable in SO2 (99.8%) and PM10 (97.5%). The weight of emissions from operation stage has become relatively smaller in the whole fuel life-cycle total GHG emissions, when the two ships move to operate on LNG.

Moving Sustainable Shipping Forward: The Potential of Market-based Mechanisms to Reduce CO2 Emissions from Shipping

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is considering adopting marketbased mechanisms (MBMs) to reduce fuel consumption by commercial shipping. This paper explores the potential effectiveness of these MBMs. How companies respond to economic stimuli generated by MBMs depends on the kind of environmental strategy they employ. The four-stage model of environmental management used in this paper identifies four strategies: crisis-oriented, process-oriented, chainoriented or full environmental sustainability. Based on a literature review, we conclude that the shipping sector is mostly crisis-oriented, meaning that staying within compliance is the main ambition. The cost-inducing fee-based or cap-and-tradebased MBMs that are considered by IMO fit well with this crisis-oriented focus. The potential effectiveness of these MBMs, however, further depends on whether the implementation challenges of generating sufficient costs to influence ship owners and strict monitoring and enforcement are overcome. This potential will be much larger when the MBMs are able to support a change to a process-oriented strategy. The IMO's MBMs will support this shift by making budget resources available to implement environmental measures and technologies, and by registering fuel consumption data for individual ships, to inform the selection of environmental measures and technologies. But the four-stage model also indicates that more needs to be done by governmental actors, NGOs and cargo-owners to move ship owners to a process-oriented strategy, i.e. facilitating investments to develop preventive technologies, raising awareness of end-consumers and supporting information-based MBMs that improve corporate branding and market access.

Potential Tangible and Intangible Benefits of Sustainable Shipping in Small Island Developing States

Small island development states (SIDS) have called for a 25% reduction in fossil fuel used by transport by 2033 at COP21 in 2015. Recognizing that the current global shipping system based on the container ship model is effectively wreaking havoc on the global environment while marginalizing people in their countries, attention is being turned to small-scaled, durable, affordable, energy-efficient, renewable-energy powered wind ships built to fit the needs, means and context of the communities that use them. After outlining the impacts of the current shipping system, this article turning to an analysis of the Greenheart Project. Greenheart Project aims to create a network of vessels powered by solar and wind technologies for transportation purposes, while developing a means for further regional and international cooperation, sustainability, and ethical business that prioritizes the unique and differing needs of communities. This paper will evaluate the Greenheart Project model of small-scaled cargo transport, measuring its tangible and intangible benefits and discussing potential applications in the South Pacific for regional trade and transport networks.