Sustainable Recycling Research Articles

Mechanical Recycling of New and Challenging Polymer Systems: A Brief Overview

AbstractPollution from plastics is a major issue in the current context, prompting the scientific community to focus its efforts on recycling these materials. Mechanical recycling emerges as the most popular due to its practicality and cost‐effectiveness. In fact, with the increase in environmental awareness, the adoption of new circular economy models, stricter regulations mandating disposal and recycling, and lower costs compared to other recycling techniques, this type of recycling is taking a predominant role over other method. However, the presence of a variety of products of different polymeric nature, the introduction of new biodegradable products, and the complexity of multilayer packaging combining different polymers, without concrete solutions for recycling create a heterogeneous range of materials that leaks into the environment. The scientific literature is actively addressing these challenges, and this review aims to explore the latest strategies for enhancing the mechanical recycling of new and challenging polymer systems. Specifically, it explores the recycling of materials originally designated for landfill, incineration or composting, focusing on advancements in management of these previously overlooked and problematic system. This underexplored perspective seeks to offer new insights and innovative solutions that can transform polymer waste management and advance more sustainable recycling practices.

Sustainable extraction and recycling of non-ferrous metals: a review from a European perspective.

This review article provides a comprehensive examination of sustainable extraction and recycling methods for non-ferrous metals, which are critical to a wide range of industries including electronics, construction and renewable energy. Focusing on metals such as aluminium, copper and silicon, the study highlights the importance of recycling in conserving resources and minimizing environmental impact. It discusses the challenges posed by material diversity in recycling processes and the advances in recycling technologies that have emerged in response. Special emphasis is placed on the importance of a circular economy in maintaining a sustainable balance between consumption and conservation of metal resources. Through detailed analysis, it advocates innovative recycling practices and improved design for recyclability and highlights the role of policy, industry and consumer behaviour in achieving sustainability goals. The findings contribute to the discourse on strategic self-sufficiency in Europe through recycling, providing insights into how to improve efficiency and manage the complexity of the global material cycle. This work calls for a collaborative effort towards sustainable metallurgy and underlines the critical need for advances in recycling infrastructure and technology to ensure the long-term availability and environmental stewardship of non-ferrous metals.This article is part of the discussion meeting issue 'Sustainable metals: science and systems'.

Integrating Management Strategy and Porter’s Five Forces Model for the Sustainable Recycling of Textile Waste

The purpose of this paper was to address the compatibility of management strategies with the competitive needs of textile waste recycling companies by applying Porter’s model. In conjunction with Porter’s model, it is appropriate to assess the attractiveness of the industry based on the balance of opportunities and threats, which determines whether the industry is attractive or less attractive. From this assessment, it is possible to decide whether to remain in the given industry and to identify strategies that indicate success. In terms of the European Green Agreement, it is necessary to ensure the faster and more efficient development of the circular economy, with a focus on resource-intensive sectors, including the textile industry. Given the adoption of the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles in June 2023, it is essential to address the issue of sustainable textile waste recycling. The importance of this strategy lies in strengthening the industry through reuse and repairs, as well as addressing the problem of textile waste. The prioritization of textile waste recycling has gained even greater importance with the arrival of the new automotive company, Volvo Cars, in eastern Slovakia. This development underscores the need for enhanced recycling efforts to manage the expected increase in industrial textile waste associated with the automotive sector’s expansion in the region. In Slovakia, four companies are involved in textile waste recycling: SK-TEX s.r.o., PR Krajné s.r.o., HOVEBA s.r.o., and LYKOTEX Slovakia s.r.o. This paper provides information on the possibility of expanding textile waste recycling capacities in eastern Slovakia. The quadratic graph method was used to identify an optimal location for textile waste recycling. The results of this analysis will help determine which enterprise in eastern Slovakia can enhance its competitiveness by leveraging this strategic location.

Promoting Sustainable Household Engagement in Recycling via Blockchain-Based Loyalty Program

Recycling plays a crucial role in impacting national GDP and environmental sustainability. Given the complexities inherent in recycling processes, technology serves as a driving force for advancing and optimizing these practices. In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, substantial initiatives are underway to foster a green environment and promote a circular economy. However, at the time of writing this paper, existing regulations mandate recycling primarily for business sectors, with no corresponding requirements for household waste collection or segregation. As a result, a significant portion of recyclable waste remains unprocessed. This paper expands upon earlier studies carried out in Jeddah, analyzing the obstacles and variables impacting sustainable recycling solutions, along with the essential conditions to boost household involvement in recycling. This study explores the potential of blockchain technology to improve household engagement by developing a blockchain-based loyalty program. The proposed system leverages the decentralized, immutable, and transparent features of blockchain technology to reward individuals with tokens for the recycling waste they produce, thereby facilitating token tracking across the recycling value chain and enhancing transparency in the circular economy. This article delves into the technical architecture of the loyalty program, aligning its domain model elements with blockchain design heuristics and integrating it with a mobile application that aims to boost recycling engagement by applying social economy principles. This innovative approach promises to overcome the current regulatory and motivational barriers, as well as promote sustainable recycling habits at the household level.

Green Gold: Using Bacteria to Extract Valuable Metals from E-Waste

The rapid proliferation of electronic devices has led to a substantial increase in electronic waste (e- waste), which contains valuable metals and hazardous substances. Traditional recycling methods, reliant on chemical processes, are often inefficient and environmentally damaging. This study investigates bioleaching, a process that employs bacteria to extract metals from e-waste, as a more sustainable alternative. By utilizing bacteria such as Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, bioleaching promises to recover valuable metals like gold, silver, and copper while minimizing environmental harm. The research focuses on optimizing bacterial strains and environmental conditions to enhance metal recovery rates and reduce processing times. A comparative analysis with traditional recycling methods highlights bioleaching’s potential benefits and challenges. The study also examines the feasibility of scaling bioleaching for industrial applications and assesses its overall environmental impact. Findings suggest that bioleaching could offer an eco-friendly solution to e-waste management, contributing to more sustainable recycling practices and resource conservation.

Tracing the EoL Tyre Management Chain in Togo with Focus on Implementing a Tyre Recycling Plant

As part of the “Waste2Energy: hybrid energy from waste as a sustainable solution for West-Africa” project, a tyre recycling plant is being constructed in Davié, north of Lomé, Togo. Understanding the tyre management chain is crucial for establishing the plant’s supply chain. This study aimed to highlight the gaps in and the importance of tyre recycling in Togo while assessing the potential of EoL tyres for the implementation of a tyre recycling plant. Togo’s vehicle fleet, predominantly concentrated in Lomé, is rapidly increasing at a rate of 6% per year, reaching an estimated 285,000 vehicles. Due to economic constraints and limited new tyre availability, most vehicle users opt for used tyres, which have a limited lifespan due to poor road conditions. An investigation of EoL tyre quantities and management chains in Togo was carried out. To evaluate the used and end-of-life tyre management chains, both direct observation and interviews with approximately 200 used-tyre dealers were conducted. The study revealed that, on average, drivers replace tyres every 7.4 months, generating between 30,525 t/a and 78,000 t/a of used tyres, 75% of which are replaced due to severe damage or wear. While the used tyre business is well organized, end-of-life tyre treatment is nearly non-existent, often involving dumping, open burning for metal recovery, or use in meat processing, causing environmental and health risks. To address these challenges, an 8 t/hr capacity tyre recycling plant is planned, based on estimated tyre availability and development opportunities for sustainable recycling in Togo.

Enhancing physico-chemical water quality in recycled dairy effluent through microbial consortium treatment

The dairy industry, notorious by generating wastewater rich in organic and nitrogenous content, necessitates sustainable recycling solutions. Biological treatment emerges as a cost-effective and chemical-free alternative. This study delves into the potential of microbial consortium, a microbial consortium, for recycling dairy effluent, aiming at water reclamation and environmental sustainability. Effluent samples from Madurai's Dairy Industry underwent microbial consortium treatment in a recycling prototype, with treatment efficacy assessed through physicochemical parameters and contaminant removal efficiency.Guided by a biodegradability index of 4.51, the study showcased EM's impact, revealing a notable decrease in pH levels, fostering an alkaline environment (2.35 ± 0.06 ppt). Dissolved oxygen increased significantly to 4.50 ppm, indicating improved aerobic conditions. EM treatment led to substantial reductions in calcium (53 %), magnesium (95 %), nitrogen (22 %), sulfate (79 %), phosphate (86 %), BOD (78 %), and COD (82 %). In contrast, dairy effluent treated without microbial consortium during the sludge activation process exhibited negligible water quality improvement.These findings underscore microbial consortium efficacy in advancing biological treatment of dairy effluent, demonstrating a significant reduction in contaminants and showcasing its potential for sustainable water reclamation. Improved alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient content further signify positive impacts on ecosystem health. Microbial consortium emerges as a promising avenue for recycling dairy effluent, offering an economically viable and environmentally friendly solution. The study emphasizes the crucial role of microbial treatments in achieving efficient water reclamation, contributing to a cleaner and sustainable environment. Future research and broader implementation of microbial consortium in dairy industry wastewater management are recommended for enhanced environmental benefits.

Overcoming barriers to proactive plastic recycling toward a sustainable future

The plastics sector, accounting for a significant portion of global emissions, presents a challenge and an opportunity in achieving carbon neutrality. Despite Japan's commendable polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle recycling rates, most plastics are thermally recycled, creating environmental issues. This study proposes an evaluation framework to enhance recycling, aligned with end-user preferences and fostering a circular plastics economy. Employing a mixed-methods approach, this study conducts fieldwork including interviews with plastic recyclers and analysis of industry data. A weighted sum multicriteria analysis integrating end-user preferences, recycling effectiveness, and market dynamics is utilized. Systemic, process, and policy challenges were shown to hinder sustainable recycling practices, while varying willingness to pay, emission and cost reduction potentials, among acceptability and sectoral diversity informed priority plastic types for recycling. Multicriteria analysis showed that although PET is favored by end users, Polyoxymethylene (POM) emerges as a potential priority target for manufacturers and recyclers. Sensitivity analysis underscores the potential impact of establishing or enhancing willingness to pay (WTP) toward certain plastic types. Moreover, manufacturer and recycler evaluations suggest a broader willingness to recycle plastics than previously assumed. The proposed evaluation framework offers insights toward plastic recycling strategies. Policy interventions such as sustained subsidies for recyclers, market incentives leveraging WTP preferences, and technological advances, including chemical recycling and the broadening of plastic type recycling in line with user and manufacturer preferences, could all contribute to promoting sustainable plastic recycling practices.

Single-Atom Copper-Bearing Cerium Oxide Electrocatalysts Embedded in an Integrated System Enable Sustainable Nitrogen Recycling from Natural Water Bodies

Single-Atom Copper-Bearing Cerium Oxide Electrocatalysts Embedded in an Integrated System Enable Sustainable Nitrogen Recycling from Natural Water Bodies

Advanced E-Waste Facility Locator: Harnessing Convolutional Neural Networks for Sustainable Environmental Impact and Recycling Solutions

Advanced E-Waste Facility Locator: Harnessing Convolutional Neural Networks for Sustainable Environmental Impact and Recycling Solutions

Polyurethane Vitrimers Engineered with Nitrogen-Coordinating Cyclic Boronic Diester Bonds for Sustainable Bioelectronics.

Flexible bioelectronic devices seamlessly interface with organs and tissues, offering unprecedented opportunity for timely prevention, early diagnosis, and medical therapies. However, the majority of flexible substrates utilized in bioelectronics still encounter significant challenges in terms of recyclability and reprocessing, leading to the accumulation of environmentally and biologically hazardous toxic waste. Here, the study reports the design of recyclable polyurethane (PU) vitrimers engineered with internal boron-nitrogen coordination bonds that can reversibly dissociate to boronic acids and hydroxyl, or undergo metathesis reaction following an associative pathway. The study demonstrates the capacity of these recyclable PU vitrimers as flexible substrates in various wearable and implantable bioelectronic applications, achieving high-quality electrophysiological recordings and stimulation. Furthermore, the study establishes a sustainable recycling process by reconstructing a range of bioelectronic devices from the recycled PU vitrimers without compromising the mechanical performance. This closed-loop approach not only addresses the critical challenge of the reclaiming medical electronic waste but also paves the way for the development of sustainable flexible bioelectronics for healthcare applications.

A Viability Study of Thermal Pre-Treatment for Recycling of Pharmaceutical Blisters

Pharmaceutical packaging is one of the most used packaging types which contains aluminum and plastics. Due to increasing amounts of waste and rising environmental concerns, recycling approaches are being investigated. Since blisters usually contain a balanced amount of plastics and metals, most of the approaches focus on recycling only one material. Therefore, more sustainable recycling approaches which recover both plastic and aluminum fractions are needed. This study investigates the thermal behavior and degradation mechanisms of plastic-rich and aluminum-rich pharmaceutical blisters using various analytical techniques. Structural characterization revealed that plastic-rich blisters have a thicker profile with plastic and aluminum layers, while aluminum-rich blisters consist of plastic layers between aluminum sheets. Thermal degradation analysis showed two main stages for both types: plastic-rich blisters (polyvinyl chloride) exhibited significant weight loss and long-chain hydrocarbon formation between 210 and 285 °C, and aluminum-rich blisters (polyamide/nylon) degraded from 240 to 270 °C. Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy analyses confirmed the endothermic behavior of such a transformation. The gas emissions analysis indicated an increased formation of gasses from the thermal treatment of plastic-rich blisters, with the presence of oxygen leading to the formation of carbon dioxide, water, and carbon monoxide. Thermal treatment with 5%O2 in the carrier gas benefited plastic-rich blister treatment, reducing organic waste by up to 80% and minimizing burning risk, leveraging pyrolytic carbon for protection. This method is unsuitable for aluminum-rich blisters, requiring reduced oxygen or temperature to prevent pyrolytic carbon combustion and aluminum oxidation.

Formulation and Recycling of a Novel Electrolyte Based on Bio-Derived γ-Valerolactone and Lithium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide for Lithium-Ion Batteries.

This work introduces a novel electrolyte comprising lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) salt dissolved in bio-based γ-valerolactone (GVL) for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Moreover, a simple and sustainable aqueous-based recycling approach for recovering the imide-based lithium salt is proposed. Beyond the sustainable origin of the GVL solvent, this electrolyte exhibits reduced flammability risk, characterized by a flash point of 136°C, along with favorable transport properties (conductivity of 6.2mScm-1 at 20°C) and good electrochemical stability (5.0V vs Li+/Li). Its good compatibility with graphite and lithium iron phosphate electrodes ensures remarkable cycling stability in LIB full-cells after 200 galvanostatic cycles at 1C. Furthermore, the proposed liquid-liquid phase electrolyte recycling method allows for a nearly complete recovery of the LiTFSI salt (97-99%) and the GVL solvent (78%). The feasibility of the recycling process is validated by the reutilization of the recovered LiTFSI salt in electric double-layer capacitors, achieving performances similar to that of the pristine salt with exceptional long-term stability.

Phase-separated solvothermal high yields recovery of lithium and cobalt cathode precursors from end-of-life LiCoO2 lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) recycling is one of the most urgent challenges affecting this technological sector. Indeed, their continuously growing production and demand is already leading to the creation of large volumes of end-of-life LIBs (EoL-LIBs). At the same time, the growing demand for LIBs is not sustainable from the point of view of supply of the critical raw materials needed to produce the essential components of LIBs. The development of efficient and sustainable recycling strategies provides a solution to these two urgent issues. Here we propose a new ternary deep eutectic solvent (DES) composition based on choline chloride, citric acid, and ethylene glycol in molar ratio 1:1:1 for the reductive degradation of LiCoO2 cathode. The optimized leaching process (5g of DES for 100 mg of black mass for 30 min at 140 °C) leads to the full degradation of the cathode with extraction yields above 97% for both Li and Co. Simple electrochemical tests confirm irreversible DES degradation, making its recovery and reuse impractical. We demonstrate that a subsequent thermal treatment, using DES as a sacrificial agent, allows to separate and recover Co3O4 and LiCl with adequate purity to be exploited for LiCoO2 resynthesis. As a proof of concept, a new batch of LiCoO2 is synthesized and used for new cells’ assembly. The performance of the resynthesized material is comparable with that of the commercial benchmark material, demonstrating the possibility of a full closed-loop recycling route.

Comparative evaluation of the extracellular production of a polyethylene terephthalate degrading cutinase by Corynebacterium glutamicum and leaky Escherichia coli in batch and fed-batch processes

BackgroundWith a growing global population, the generation of plastic waste and the depletion of fossil resources are major concerns that need to be addressed by developing sustainable and efficient plastic recycling methods. Biocatalytic recycling is emerging as a promising ecological alternative to conventional processes, particularly in the recycling of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). However, cost-effective production of the involved biocatalyst is essential for the transition of enzymatic PET recycling to a widely used industrial technology. Extracellular enzyme production using established organisms such as Escherichia coli or Corynebacterium glutamicum offers a promising way to reduce downstream processing costs.ResultsIn this study, we compared extracellular recombinant protein production by classical secretion in C. glutamicum and by membrane leakage in E. coli. A superior extracellular release of the cutinase ICCGDAQI was observed with E. coli in batch and fed-batch processes on a litre-scale. This phenomenon in E. coli, in the absence of a signal peptide, might be associated with membrane-destabilizing catalytic properties of the expressed cutinase. Optimisations regarding induction, expression temperature and duration as well as carbon source significantly enhanced extracellular cutinase activity. In particular, in fed-batch cultivation of E. coli at 30 °C with lactose as carbon source and inducer, a remarkable extracellular activity (137 U mL−1) and cutinase titre (660 mg L−1) were achieved after 48 h. Literature values obtained with other secretory organisms, such as Bacillus subtilis or Komagataella phaffii were clearly outperformed. The extracellular ICCGDAQI produced showed high efficacy in the hydrolysis of PET textile fibres, either chromatographically purified or unpurified as culture supernatant. In less than 18 h, 10 g L−1 substrate was hydrolysed using supernatant containing 3 mg cutinase ICCGDAQI at 70 °C, pH 9 with terephthalic acid yields of up to 97.8%.ConclusionExtracellular production can reduce the cost of recombinant proteins by simplifying downstream processing. In the case of the PET-hydrolysing cutinase ICCGDAQI, it was even possible to avoid chromatographic purification and still achieve efficient PET hydrolysis. With such production approaches and their further optimisation, enzymatic recycling of PET can contribute to a more efficient and environmentally friendly solution to the industrial recycling of plastics in the future.

Integrating thermodynamic and kinetic approaches for the design of effective and sustainable PET chemical upcycling systems

Understanding and optimizing the individual contributions of recycling process components are critical in the development of effective and sustainable upcycling systems. Herein, each process component, i.e., alcohol, co-solvent, Lewis acid, and reaction conditions, is newly and holistically assessed for the alcohol-based conversion of postconsumer polyethylene terephthalate (PET) to terephthalic acid (TPA) and its precursors by integrating thermodynamic and kinetic considerations. First, an analysis based on the Flory-Huggins interaction parameter (χ1,2) establishes the importance of co-solvents in the depolymerization process due to reduction of thermodynamic potential. Second, a kinetic analysis of the catalyst component proves the vitality of the solubility of the Lewis acid source for efficient PET deconstruction. In addition, further validation experiments determine methanol as the most effective option in tandem alcoholysis given its reduced steric hindrance and relatively higher nucleophilicity, whereas process optimization tests suggest the existence of an optimum methanol molar ratio (XMetOH) of 0.16 and operation at 50 °C to realize TPA yields that exceed 90 % within 15 min across various pure and mixed PET feedstocks. Selection and implementation of greener solvents in the process is also found to reduce co-solvent based emissions by 96.3 % whilst retaining comparable monomer production efficiency. Overall, the implementation of thermodynamic considerations and kinetics-based understanding of roles played by each component is found to boost the overall depolymerization process, and the integration of these thermodynamic and kinetic approaches provides a unified avenue for optimizing and developing sustainable recycling processes for post-consumer plastic waste.

Closed-Loop Recycling of Wearable Electronic Textiles.

Wearable electronic textiles (e-textiles) are transforming personalized healthcare through innovative applications. However, integrating electronics into textiles for e-textile manufacturing exacerbates the rapidly growing issues of electronic waste (e-waste) and textile recycling due to the complicated recycling and disposal processes needed for mixed materials, including textile fibers, electronic materials, and components. Here, first closed-loop recycling for wearable e-textiles is reported by incorporating the thermal-pyrolysis of graphene-based e-textiles to convert them into graphene-like electrically conductive recycled powders. A scalable pad-dry coating technique is then used to reproduce graphene-based wearable e-textiles and demonstrate their potential healthcare applications as wearable electrodes for capturing electrocardiogram (ECG) signals and temperature sensors. Additionally, recycled graphene-based textile supercapacitor highlights their potential as sustainable energy storage devices, maintaining notable durability and retaining ≈94% capacitance after 1000 cycles with an areal capacitance of 4.92 mF cm⁻2. Such sustainable closed-loop recycling of e-textiles showcases the potential for their repurposing into multifunctional applications, promoting a circular approach that potentially prevents negative environmental impact and reduces landfill disposal.

Novel insights into the correlation composition-structure-property of recyclable carbon fiber reinforced thermosetting resin composites

As widely used lightweight and high-strength materials, the sustainable development of thermosetting composites is hampered by their limited recyclability. Developing simple methods for the efficient and upgraded recycling is desirable but challenging. Herein, carbon fiber reinforced degradable thermosetting resin composites were prepared, and the effects of resin degradation process and its derivatives on the sustainable recycling of carbon fiber were studied. Through the tunable departure and re-adsorption of degradation derivatives in cleaning post-treatment, recycled carbon fibers achieved not only non-destructive recovery but also simultaneously improvements in tensile strength from 3.0 GPa to 3.7 GPa and surface energy from 47.2 mN/m to 66.7 mN/m. The adhered derivatives, rich in -NH- and oxygen-containing groups, exhibited good interactions with the fiber surface and epoxy resin. Benefiting from this, the inter laminar shear strength of recycled carbon fibers reinforced epoxy composite effectively improved 24.3 %. In this work, directly reusing resin degradation products for the recycling of reinforced fibers was proposed and the key role of the composition and distribution of degradation products in recycling properties was revealed. The strategy of integrating characteristics of components to enhance material recyclability is expected to have widespread applicability, promoting the sustainable transition for thermosetting composites.

Kinetic modelling and mechanism elucidation of catalyst-free dimethyl terephthalate hydrolysis process intensification by reactive distillation

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a widely used thermoplastic polymer in the packaging and materials industries, and is predicted to have continuous market growth in the future. Methods such as glycolysis and methanolysis of PET have been identified as promising approaches in sustainable chemical recycling of PET. The latter produces dimethyl terephthalate (DMT), which can be easily hydrolyzed to terephthalic acid (TPA) at elevated temperatures and pressures, and further reused for PET production. The aim of this study was to develop a kinetic model for the hydrolysis of dimethyl terephthalate, using the experimental data. Various reaction conditions (temperature, pressure, time) have been investigated and used to calculate the activation energies and reaction rate constants, while the variation in reactor setup with methanol (MeOH) removal was conducted to show its detrimental effect on the efficiency of the reaction and selectivity towards terephthalic acid. The first reaction step of DMT to monomethyl terephthalate (MMT) is relatively irreversible, while the second reaction step of MMT to TPA ceases, as soon as the equilibrium is reached. Highest yields of TPA (76.7 %) were obtained after 40 min at 265 °C, with MeOH removal, and the activation energy was calculated to be 95 and 64 kJ mol−1 for the first and second hydrolysis reaction step, respectively.

Tailored biolixiviation of spent LiCoO2 cathode batteries for sustainable metal recovery: Effects of consortia adaptation and particle size

With the rise of lithium-ion battery production, recycling valuable metals like Fe, Al, Cu, Ni, and Co is crucial. This study explores sustainable recovery from spent LiCoO2 cathode batteries via biolixiviation, focusing on microbial adaptation and particle size. Batteries were shredded into four size fractions, with mid-sized fractions (0.5–6 mm) showing the highest metal content and optimal microbial conditions. Microbial consortia were isolated using Modified Czapek-Dox (MCD) and M9 media. Metagenomic analysis revealed shifts in dominant bacteria, with Acidobacteria and Actinobacteria initially, and Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria later. Enzymatic profiling showed increased activity of key enzymes under metal-adapted conditions. Biolixiviation experiments revealed the highest metal recovery in mid-sized fractions at different conditions including the influence of microbial adaptation and the type of media used: Fe (47.2 %-53.0 %), Al (38.7 %-40.5 %), Cu (29.0 %-31.0 %), Ni (25.6 %-27.4 % in the largest fraction), and Co (40.1 %-41.0 %). Adapted consortia had higher recovery rates, offering a sustainable recycling route.