Sustainable Building Materials Research Articles

Enhancing the Thermal and Energy Performance of Clay Bricks with Recycled Cultivated Pleurotus florida Waste

The development of energy-efficient and sustainable building materials is imperative to reduce energy consumption in the construction sector. This study addresses both the applied problem of increased solar heat gain and decreased indoor thermal comfort, as well as the scientific problem of reducing the thermal conductivity of clay bricks. It investigates the incorporation of recycled spent mushroom materials, consisting of Pleurotus florida mycelia and rice husk waste, as a novel additive in the production of fired clay bricks (FCBs) to enhance thermal insulation properties. The developed bricks were utilized in an optimized wall design for a residential building in New Cairo, Egypt. The wall design is created using energy modeling software, including Honeybee, Ladybug, Climate Studio, and Galapagos. The results demonstrate that an optimal waste content of 15% and a firing temperature of 900 °C yield the best thermal performance. Compared to traditional FCB walls, the new design incorporating the florida waste additive significantly improves thermal comfort, as indicated by a lower predicted mean vote and predicted percentage of dissatisfaction. Furthermore, the developed walls contribute to a reduction in CO2 emissions of 6% and a decrease in total energy consumption of 38.8%. The incorporation of recycled florida waste offers a sustainable approach to enhancing standard brick fabrication processes. This work highlights the promise of agricultural waste valuation for the development of eco-friendly and energy-efficient building materials. Future research should explore the mechanical strength, acoustics, cost–benefit analysis, and field implementation of the developed walls, thereby addressing both the scientific and applied aspects of the problem.

Sludge‐based geopolymer materials: A review

AbstractSludge refers to the solid waste produced after sewage treatment. Unreasonable disposal of sludge can cause environmental pollution. Nonetheless, the sludge contains large amounts of silica‐aluminate, which has pozzolanic activity by treatment, and the sludge can be used as a sustainable building material. The previous studies have recommended that it is reasonable to produce geopolymers, that is, a green low‐carbon cementitious material with excellent mechanical and durability properties, from sludge. This article provides an overview of recent advancements in the study of sludge‐based geopolymer. It delves into the mechanisms behind alkali‐activated geopolymer, examines the feasibility of preparing geopolymer from sludge, and discusses various preparation methods. Additionally, it elaborates on the impact of incorporating different auxiliary materials on sludge‐based geopolymer. The comprehensive performance of sludge‐based geopolymer, encompassing mechanical properties, durability, and setting time, is thoroughly summarized. An environmental assessment is conducted, evaluating heavy metal leaching and the lifecycle of sludge‐based geopolymer. Finally, we briefly discuss some problems in the current research and development trends in the future on sludge‐based geopolymer. The aim of this article is to provide comprehensive support and guidance for both the research and practical engineering applications of sludge‐based geopolymer.

Prediction of sound and vibration levels from heavy-hard impacts in a cross laminated timber—Concrete hybrid building

Heavy-hard weight impacts in fitness spaces often result in elevated noise and vibration levels, which can lead to complaints in sensitive adjacencies. Previous works have demonstrated a method to predict the resulting noise and vibration levels in fitness space adjacencies. This method involves the analysis of an in situ transfer function in combination with laboratory force data and sound pressure level measurements from a shotput dropped on a calibrated reference rubber impact sheet. It was originally developed for use in concrete structures, which are typical for large multi-residential, commercial, and mixed-use buildings that commonly feature fitness amenity rooms or commercial gyms. The growing popularity of mass timber as a sustainable building material provides an opportunity to expand upon the previous research by examining the validity of the prediction method in another structural type. This paper serves as a case study of heavy-hard impacts in a residential hybrid mass timber structure, where weight drops from a fitness center at the top level of the concrete podium were disturbing apartment residents occupying the first CLT level directly above.

Thermal and Sound Insulation Properties of Organic Biocomposite Mixtures.

Sustainable building materials with excellent thermal stability and sound insulation are crucial for eco-friendly construction. This study investigates biocomposites made from cellulose pulp reinforced with beeswax, fir resin, and natural fillers like horsetail, rice flour, and fir needles. Eight formulations were obtained, and their thermal resistance, oxidation temperature, and acoustic properties were evaluated. Biocomposites exhibited significant improvements compared to conventional materials. Oxidation temperature onset increased by 60-70 °C compared to polyurethane foam or recycled textiles, reaching 280-290 °C. Sound absorption coefficients ranged from 0.15 to 0.78, with some formulations exceeding 0.5 across mid-frequencies, indicating good sound-dampening potential. These findings demonstrate the promise of these biocomposites for sustainable construction, offering a balance of thermal and acoustic performance alongside environmental and health benefits.

Environmental Marine Degradation of PLA/Wood Composite as an Alternative Sustainable Boat Building Material

Abstract IIn this study, which can be considered a contribution to the global effort to produce sustainable materials and to search new manufacturing methods for the boat building industry, the performance of a 3D printable polylactic acid and recycled wood (PLAW) composite was investigated under the simulated operational conditions of a boat. The wood used in the composite was yellow pine (Pinus sylvestris), a local wood widely used in boat building and 8% by weight in the composite. For the study, tensile and compressive strength tests were performed in both atmospheric and post-aging conditions, using composite samples produced by the additive manufacturing method. The durations of the accelerated aging before the experiments were one, two and four weeks. During these aging periods, water spraying, a salty fog environment and a drying cycle were applied at elevated temperatures and at equal time intervals, daily. The effect of wood additive on the composite and the joining efficiency of the components were also examined with scanning and optical microscopes. The performance of the obtained composite and the effects of aging on performance were measured using two different thermal analyses: differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis. From the results obtained, it can be seen that PLAW composite can be used in the manufacture of structural elements subjected to relatively low loads in boats. It is an option that will provide integrity in the future interior design of wooden boats.

Impact of nano-dopants on the mechanical and physical properties of magnesium oxychloride cement composites – Experimental assessment

The importance of the reduction of the World's CO2 emissions due to their non-negligible contribution to climate change is inevitable. As the Portland cement (PC) industry is one of the main contributors to the overall volume of CO2 emissions produced over the World, a sustainable PC substitute must be implemented. Previous scientific studies suggest that magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC) – an eco-friendly binder based on reactive magnesia – could be a suitable alternative. This contribution studies the influence of various nano-dopants on the mechanical and physical properties of MOC-based composites. The nano-dopants introduced to the MOC composite were the following: multi-walled carbon nanotubes, oxidized multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, graphene nanoplatelets, and alumina nanosheets. Ahead of the composite preparation, the nano-dopants were analysed with a wide spectrum of analytical methods to study their composition and microstructure in detail. The used amount of nano-dopant was 1.0 wt%, relative to the cement paste weight. After a curing period of 28 days, the prepared composite samples underwent a comprehensive analysis of their microstructure, phase, and chemical composition, as well as micro- and macrostructural parameters and mechanical properties. Additionally, the research studied the effects of nano-dopants on the hygric properties and water resistance of the MOC composites after 24-h immersion in water. The findings revealed a noteworthy increase in mechanical parameters with the addition of nano-dopants. The highest compressive strength of 85.4 MPa was obtained for the MOC composite enriched with the addition of oxidized multi-walled carbon nanotubes. MOC doped with alumina nanosheets exhibited the highest value in flexural strength (20.99 MPa) and dynamic modulus of elasticity (38.85 GPa) measurements. The resistance of MOC composites to deterioration in water was also improved by all the implemented nano-dopants. The softening coefficient determined for samples immersed in water for 24 h varied from 62.7 to 74.8%. The best resistance to water degradation was obtained for MOC with alumina nanosheets, which showed a softening coefficient value about 23.2% higher than that of the reference sample. Thus, the incorporation of nanomaterials as functional nano-dopants in MOC-based composites shows promising opportunities in the improvement of both mechanical properties and water resistance, contributing to the development of environmentally sustainable building materials.

Life cycle assessment of hemp-lime concrete wall constructions: The impact of wall finish type and renewal regimes

Using sustainable building materials is one of the key methods for minimising the negative environmental impacts of the global construction industry. Bio-based buildings building materials, such as hemp-lime concrete, are considered more sustainable, as they make use of a renewable raw material and can sequester CO2 from the atmosphere. Studies have shown that hemp-lime concrete can have a favourable global warming potential, though the life cycle of building materials affects a wide variety of negative environmental phenomena that should also be considered. Studies examining the life cycle of hemp-lime concrete have so far primarily focused on the material itself. Though the exterior surface of a hemp-lime concrete wall needs to be protected and have a finish applied to it, few studies have considered the environmental impacts of coated hemp-lime concrete wall constructions. Using life cycle assessment methodology, through a wide range of environmental impact categories, the study analysed the environmental impacts of applying lime putty and sand coatings to a hemp-lime concrete wall in pessimistic, average and optimistic scenarios, It also compared the environmental impacts of four types of appropriate wall finishes and the impacts of applying varying finish renewal regimes in the use phase. It was found that applying lime putty and sand finishes to the exterior and interior surface of a hemp lime concrete wall increased the total global warming potential by 19.054–30.793 kgCO2eq and had a noticeable effect on all other impact categories. It was found that while no one finish type could be considered globally superior to the others, in a majority of circumstances applying lime-based coatings resulted in lower embodied environmental impacts, than applying a ventilated façade with timber cladding.

Sustainable geopolymers from polyethylene terephthalate waste and industrial by-products: a comprehensive characterisation and performance predictions

Several researchers have recently worked to create sustainable building materials. One of the fundamental prerequisites for sustainable construction methods and environmental impact assessments is the use of green building materials and manufacturing processes. In this research study, geopolymer bricks were developed using polyethylene terephthalate waste and different industrial by-products (rice husk ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, red mud, construction, and demolition waste) and investigated their performances. The polyethylene terephthalate waste was used as a replacement for sand filler in the geopolymer brick up to 100%. Key findings include a workability decrease of 14.75% and a compressive strength reduction of up to 75% with 100% plastic waste replacement, attributed to increased voids and weak geopolymer matrix interaction. Dry density consistently decreases, and water absorption rises to 13.73% with full sand replacement, indicating a porous structure. Impact resistance improves with plastic waste inclusion, enhancing ductility and thermal conductivity by 57% at full replacement. Microstructural analyses reveal correlations between physical–mechanical properties and changes in porosity, microcracks, and bond strength. Machine learning, especially linear regression, proves effective for strength parameter prediction (up to 100% efficacy, R-square of 0.998). The promising results obtained could offer a substantial environmentally friendly solution to the building and construction industry in line with Circular Economy principles.

Utilization of oil palm biomass and Polyurethanes as sustainable construction materials: A review

This review explores the utilization of oil palm biomass (OPB) and polyurethane (PU) as sustainable building materials in the construction sector. Given the significant ecological impact, the article highlights the importance of investigating the potential of OPB and PU for construction applications. The primary objective of this review is to evaluate and summarize existing information on the use of OPB and PU while also examining the material's properties, and environmental sustainability in buildings applications. In addition to compiling the existing information on the use of OPB and PU, this review identifies crucial gaps that require further study. The review advocates for continuous exploration and innovation in utilizing OPB and PU for sustainable construction, providing a foundation for researchers to contribute to more eco-friendly building practices. Furthermore, it guides the direction of sustainable construction material development and lays the groundwork for future research efforts.

A green and eco-friendly method to enhance Bamboo flame resistance via calcium alginate assisted in-situ mineralization of hydroxyapatite

Developing environmentally friendly methods for modifying bamboo is important. This study proposed a method to enhance the flame retardancy of bamboo through calcium alginate (CaAlg) forming and hydroxyapatite (HAP) mineralization. Scanning electron microscopy and elemental analysis demonstrated that HAP was uniformly deposited within and on the surface of bamboo cells with the assistance of CaAlg. The residue yield of the treated bamboo increased by 49.8% and 40.7% under air and nitrogen atmospheres, respectively. The limiting oxygen index increased from 23.4% to 26.6%. Furthermore, compared to the untreated bamboo, the treated bamboo exhibited reductions of 45.2%, 25.8%, 25.6%, and 30.7% in peak heat release rate, total heat release, peak smoke production, and total smoke release, respectively. The layer of CaAlg and HAP particles cross-link within the bamboo cells, forming a dense protective barrier that prevented the entry of heat, flammable gases, and the release of toxic smoke. The mechanical properties of the bamboo were not reduced by this gentle treatment. The mineralized bamboo fabricated using this method showed potential as a sustainable building material due to its improved flame retardancy and mechanical properties.

Effect of gypsum on hydration properties, composition and kinetics of low carbon belite-ye'elimite-Q phase-ferrite clinker

In this study, a new low-carbon clinker, belite-ye'elimite-Q phase-ferrite (BYQF), was produced and hydrated with and without gypsum at 8 %, 15 % and 30 % mass concentrations. The results show an optimum compressive strength of 122 MPa (90 days) with 30 wt% gypsum addition. The gypsum content determines the development of the compressive strength, which can be increased by 30 % to 105 % due to the change in gypsum content compared to BYF clinker. Gypsum inhibited strength decrease at late stage and shortened the induction period. Although 30 wt% gypsum reduced the dissolution rate of C2S and C4AF, it increased ettringite and AH3 content in the middle and late stages, which reduced porosity and promoted strength growth. Based above results, BYQF shows outstanding performance and is expected to be used as a sustainable building material.

Sustainable building materials: A comprehensive study on eco-friendly alternatives for construction

An in-depth review of a varied range of eco-friendly options for construction is done in this thorough research on sustainable building materials. With increased worries about environmental deterioration, the building sector is increasingly focusing on long-term solutions. This research looks into a variety of materials, including bamboo, engineered wood products, recycled composites, and optimal concrete mixtures. The study underlines the importance of compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths, which are a basic feature for structural integrity. The study also gives useful insights into their practical applicability in real-world building projects by assessing the flexural strength of various materials. Furthermore, the study examines the environmental effect of these materials, taking into account characteristics such as renewability, recyclability, and energy efficiency. Laboratory tests were conducted to determine the fundamental properties of selected materials as part of the investigations. The study emphasizes the ecological advantages of adopting these sustainable alternatives through life cycle assessments and comparative studies. The research output can be served as a thorough reference for architects, engineers, and policymakers, providing a complete knowledge of sustainable building materials and their critical role in developing a greener, more resilient built environment.

Eco-Design and Characterization of Sustainable Lightweight Gypsum Composites for Panel Manufacturing including End-of-Life Tyre Wastes.

The incorporation of rubber recycled aggregates from end-of-life tyres (ELT) in the manufacturing process of sustainable building materials has gained great interest in recent decades as a result of the large volume of this waste being generated annually. In this work, the objective is to make a contribution towards the circularity of construction products by carrying out a physico-mechanical characterisation of new gypsum composites made with the incorporation of these recycled rubber aggregates. To this end, up to 30% by volume of the original raw material has been substituted, analysing the mechanical resistance to bending and compression. Although lower than those of traditional gypsum material, both properties exceed the limits set at 1 and 2 MPa, respectively, by the current regulations. In addition, water absorption by capillarity significantly decreases, and thermal conductivity is reduced by more than 35% with respect to the reference material. Finally, in order to provide the research with a practical application, a prefabricated plate design has been proposed that incorporates the gypsum materials studied and an agglomerated rubber band that increases the thermal resistance and improves the efficiency of the designed construction system. In this way, this research reflects the potential of these novel building materials and explores new avenues for their application in building construction.

Experimental Study of Thermal Conductivity in Soil Stabilization for Sustainable Construction Applications

Soils in Saudi Arabia are emerging as potential sustainable building materials, a notion central to this study. The research is crucial for advancing construction practices in arid areas by enhancing soil thermal properties through stabilization. Focusing on Hejaz region soils, the study evaluates the impact of stabilizers such as cement, lime, and cement kiln dust (CKD) on their thermal behavior. This investigation, using two specific soil types designated as Soil A and Soil B, varied the concentration of additives from 0% to 15% over a 12-week duration. Employing a TLS-100 for thermal measurements, it was found that Soil A, with a 12.5% cement concentration, showed a significant 164.54% increase in thermal conductivity. When treated with 2.5% lime, Soil A reached a thermal conductivity of 0.555 W/(m·K), whereas Soil B exhibited a 53.00% decrease under similar lime concentration, reflecting diverse soil responses. Notably, a 15% CKD application in Soil A led to an astounding 213.55% rise in thermal conductivity, with Soil B recording an 82.7% increase. The findings emphasize the substantial influence of soil stabilization in improving the thermal characteristics of Hejaz soils, especially with cement and CKD, and, to a varying extent. This study is pivotal in identifying precise, soil-specific stabilization methods in Saudi Arabia’s Hejaz region, essential for developing sustainable engineering applications and optimizing construction materials for better thermal efficiency.

Transforming waste into sustainable building materials: Properties and environmental impacts of Geopolymer concrete with recycled concrete aggregates

<p>Industrial by-products such as cementitious materials or aggregates have the potential to mitigate the adverse environmental effects associated with traditional cement manufacture. Geopolymer Concrete (GPC) is more eco-friendly than conventional concrete because it does not require cement. GPC with Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), and Fly Ash (FA) reduce raw material use and create sustainable infrastructure. GPC compounds increase workability, slump value above standard concrete, and reduce the amount of water usage. The study examines GPC mechanical properties, durability, and environmental properties with different RCA content. The M30 concrete mix design is established by trial and error utilizing a 0.45 water/binder ratio. GPC with 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% recycled coarse aggregate replaced natural aggregate(NA) by mass. GPC with 50% GGBS provides an early strength of 96% of normal compressive strength on day seven. The compressive, split tension, and flexural strengths exhibit significant improvement with up to a 40% substitution of NA with RA. These results highlight GPC's potential as a sustainable alternative in the construction sector.</p>

Evaluation of Three Common Green Building Materials Using ELECTRE Method

This research paper examines various options for replacing halogenated flame retardants with non-halogenated green construction material choices. Cellulosic construction materials like bamboo do not form compounds with conventional flame retardants. Due to a number of circumstances, including the minimal effectiveness of the flame-retardant activity, they may thus be an unnecessary component of the substrate and simply peel off. Utilizing an additive that comes into direct contact with at least one component of the "green building material" will provide long-lasting flame retardancy since the flame retardant will become a structurally integral element of the substrate. The response mechanisms of various treatment approaches are also discussed in this research to ensure that non-halogenated flame retardants effectively protect sustainable building materials like wood and bamboo. This paper demonstrates how various ELECTRE approaches may be used to choose effective tactics that take into account both technical and human behavioral barriers using a typical case study inside an organization. The impact of impedance from each system subsystem is investigated to assure the dependability of the selected method. When employee participation is a deciding element in the multidimensional strategic planning problem, a comparison of a range of compensated and non-compensatory models reveals that the models may produce less. Resistance strategies; However, ELECTRE shows very reasonable sensitivity. The alternatives are Gladstone, Port Augusta, Collie and Tarong. the evaluation parameters are Construction cost, Procurement cost, Waste reduction, GHG emissions, Cement replacement and Self-consolidating. The Final Result of Net superior value and rank the Gladstone is in fourth rank, The Port Augusta is in second rank, The Collie is in third rank, The Tarong is in first rank of the Net Inferior Value and Rank the Tarong is in fourth rank, The Gladstone is in first rank, The Port Augusta is in Second rank, The Collie is in third rank.

Study on the preparation and mechanical and fatigue properties of alkali excited recycled concrete

This study aims to explore the preparation process of alkali excited recycled concrete, and evaluate its performance in terms of mechanical and fatigue properties, so as to provide theoretical and practical support for the application of sustainable development and environmental protection building materials. Laboratory test and performance evaluation were used to prepare alkali-stimulated recycled concrete specimens with different proportions by adjusting fly ash, alkali activator and water solid ratio in recycled concrete. Then, the mechanical properties of the specimen were tested, including the influence of the cementing material on its compressive strength and the influence of the aggregate quality on its compressive strength. Finally, the fatigue life test is used to analyze the fatigue performance of alkali stimulated recycled concrete, and the influence of different ages and different stress levels on fatigue damage performance of alkali stimulated recycled concrete specimens is studied. The experimental results show that the mechanical properties of recycled concrete can be significantly improved by using alkali excited recycled concrete preparation technology. It is found that under the same stress ratio, with the increase of age, the corresponding fatigue life will increase, the flexural tensile strength will increase, and the fatigue resistance will improve. At the same age, the fatigue life of specimens decreases with the increase of stress ratio, and the flexural tensile strength and fatigue resistance remain unchanged. This study proves the effectiveness of alkali excited recycled concrete preparation technology in improving the mechanical properties and fatigue properties of recycled concrete. Alkali stimulated recycled concrete is not only conducive to resource reuse, reduce the impact of waste on the environment, but also provides a new choice for the sustainable development of building materials. However, further research and application are needed to promote the widespread application of alkali excited recycled concrete in engineering practice.

Engineering and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Sustainable Zeolite-Based Geopolymer Incorporating Blast Furnace Slag

This study aims to investigate the preparation of zeolite-based geopolymer composites incorporating blast furnace slag at various temperatures and varying amounts of blast furnace slag as potential sustainable building and construction materials. The primary objectives were to use mining waste streams for geopolymer production and assess the mechanical behavior of these hybrid geopolymers, along with performing a life cycle assessment (LCA) to compare their environmental impact with conventional concrete. It was observed that the hybrid geopolymers attained a maximum mechanical strength of 40 MPa. Remarkably, substituting just 20% of the material with blast furnace slag resulted in a 92% improvement in compressive strength. To assess environmental impacts, a cradle-to-gate LCA was performed on different geopolymer mix designs, focusing particularly on the global warming potential (GWP). The results indicated that geopolymer concrete generated a maximum of 240 kg CO2-e/m3, which was 40% lower than the emissions from ordinary cement, highlighting the environmental advantages of geopolymer materials. Further, X-ray diffraction was used to determine the mineral composition of both raw and developed composites. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was applied to study the molecular structure changes upon incorporating blast furnace slag. The initial setting time and shrinkage of the geopolymers were also investigated. Morphological characteristics were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Thermal analyses confirmed the stability of the geopolymers up to 800 °C. Geopolymer composites with high thermal stability can be used in construction materials that require fire resistance. This study not only enhances the understanding of geopolymer composite properties but also confirms the substantial environmental advantages of utilizing geopolymerization in sustainable construction.

Enhancing the Performance and Durability of M35 Grade Concrete with Alccofine 1203

The construction industry faces pressures to reduce its environmental footprint, prompting the exploration of sustainable materials that maintain or enhance conventional concrete’s performance. This study investigates Alccofine 1203, a high-performance micro-fine material, as a partial replacement for cement at increments of 5%, 10%, and 15%. Multiple concrete cubes were prepared and tested for compressive strength, flexural strength, workability, and durability. Fresh properties were evaluated using slump and flow tests, ensuring adequate workability, while long-term performance was assessed through durability tests, including permeability and chloride ion penetration. The results indicate that a 10% replacement of cement with Alccofine 1203 enhances the compressive strength and durability of concrete without compromising workability. Higher replacement percentages showed varied results, necessitating further investigation to optimize the mix design. This study highlights the potential of Alccofine 1203 as a sustainable alternative to traditional cement, offering significant implications for eco-friendly construction practices. This research contributes to the field by providing empirical data on Alccofine 1203’s effects on concrete, supporting the development of more sustainable building materials. Future work will focus on refining mix proportions and exploring Alccofine’s impact on other concrete properties such as shrinkage and creep.

An Experimental Study on Strength and Durability of Concrete by Partial Replacement of Coarse Aggregate with Steel Waste and Fine Aggregate with Copper Waste

Global warming and environmental destruction have become the major issue in recent years. Emission of greenhouse gases from industries has impact on climate change. Preventing the depletion of natural resources and enhancing the usage of waste materials has become a challenge to the scientist and engineers. A number of studies have been conducted concerning the protection of natural resources, prevention of environmental pollution and contribution to the economy by using this waste material. The major byproducts of industry are slag. To solve the problem in effective manner slag is use in concrete by replacing natural coarse aggregate. In this study, the replacement was done with coarse aggregate by steel waste and copper for a M20 grade of concrete is used for a water cement ratio of 0.40.Tests on compressive strength at 7 days and14 days are conducted on specimens. The optimum strength is obtained on 30% replacement of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate by steel waste and copper waste. All mechanical properties were enhanced with the use of copper slag. Copper slag improved the resistance against chloride penetration. 40% copper slag partial replacement enhanced the properties of self-compacting concrete, and up to 60% of fine aggregate can be substituted with industrial copper waste. By this investigation, copper slag can be used as a sustainable building material.