Sustainable Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Production of Biodiesel from Industrial Sludge: Recent Progress, Challenges, Perspective

This study investigated biodiesel production from industrial sludge, focusing on the feasibility and sustainability of converting waste materials into renewable energy sources. This study combines a comparative analysis of various sludge-based biodiesel production methods, highlighting both their environmental benefits and economic potential. Utilizing physical, chemical, and biological pre-treatments, this study optimizes biodiesel yield while assessing the impact of each method on the overall production efficiency. Key findings revealed that industrial sludge provides a viable feedstock, contributes to waste reduction, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. The novel contributions of this study include a detailed economic assessment of biodiesel production from sludge and a comprehensive environmental impact evaluation that quantifies the potential sustainability benefits. Limitations related to scale-up processes are identified, and solutions to overcome these issues are discussed to improve industrial feasibility. Furthermore, the integration of sludge-based biodiesel production with other renewable energy systems has been explored as a future avenue to enhance energy efficiency and sustainability. This research contributes to a significant scientific niche by addressing scalability challenges and proposing future perspectives for sustainable biodiesel production from industrial waste.

Harnessing visible light for sustainable biodiesel production with Ni/Si/MgO photocatalyst

Sustainable energy sources frequently demonstrate greater reliability and resilience in comparison to conventional energy sources. Biodiesel, with its markedly reduced carbon footprint when compared to petroleum-based diesel fuel, owes this advantage to its production from renewable resources. Heterojunction photocatalysts have gained significant interest due to their immense promise in tackling environmental challenges. In this study, a highly efficient photocatalyst, Ni/Si/MgO, for biodiesel production under visible light irradiation was synthesized using a solid-phase reaction method with silica as the silicon source, along with Ni and MgO. The surface functionality of Ni/Si/MgO was crucial for achieving high efficiency of photocatalytic systems, as evident from XPS. The transesterification reaction on the Ni/Si/MgO photocatalyst proceeds by the formation of SiH and SiOH bonds over the catalyst. The photocatalytic activities of Ni/Si/MgO photocatalysts were higher than those of the Si/MgO nanoparticle when exposed to light. Achieving an optimal yield of 98 %, the biodiesel production was carried out under the following reaction conditions: A catalyst dosage of 2 % by weight was utilized, along with a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 12:1, and the entire procedure was executed within a duration of 3.5 h. Plasmonic near-fields are speculated to be responsible for the increased transesterification activity along the Ni/Si/MgO interface. In order to carry out the transesterification reaction, electron-hole pairs are generated along the Ni/Si/MgO interface, where plasmonic near-fields are highly concentrated. This study contributes a significant perspective on mechanisms governing the process of efficient plasmonic photocatalysis responsive to visible light. These findings hold the potential to offer valuable guidance in the formulation and design of next-generation, high-performance photocatalysts.

Utilization of Biodiesel Residue through Efficient Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Carbon Quantum Dots: A Versatile Nanomaterial for Environmental Remediation

The rapid expansion of the biodiesel industry has substantially increased crude glycerol residue (CG) production, creating sustainability and economic challenges due to surplus glycerol generation. Conventional purification methods are costly and environmentally demanding, necessitating innovative strategies to utilize this residue effectively. This study innovates by exploring the microwave-assisted synthesis of carbon dots (CDs) from CG, exemplifying a shift toward sustainable biodiesel production by transforming the residue into a multifunctional material. CDs exhibited a nanometric spherical morphology of 2.6 ± 0.3 nm diameter verified by HRTEM analysis. The reduction of oxygen confirmed the transformation of CG into CDs–H bands and the formation of polyaromatic structures. The graphitic structures were verified by Raman spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance, and X-ray diffraction. The quantum yield (QY) was calculated to be 1.3%. The multifunctionality of CDs has been proven in sensing and photocatalysis. In the sensor applications, the CDs demonstrated strong fluorescence quenching in the presence of Fe3+ and Cu2+ ions, with a limit of detection of 1.8 ± 0.01 and 4.0 ± 0.04 mg.L-1, respectively, indicating the potential use of CDs in detecting these ions in wastewater samples. When complexed with titanium dioxide (TiO2), the TiO2/CDs composite showed an extended photoresponse of TiO2 to the UV-visible region, improving the efficiency of photocatalytic reactions for Victoria Blue B (VBB) dye degradation (98% degradation after 150 min). This research highlights the potential of utilizing CG to produce versatile CDs, contribute to more sustainable biodiesel production, and offer promising applications in environmental sensing and photocatalysis.

Transforming wastewater-derived algae biodiesel with ammonium hydroxide emulsion for enhanced energy efficiency and emission reduction

The growing demand for sustainable energy has prompted a search for alternative fuels, with microalgae-based biodiesel emerging as a promising option. However, improving its energy efficiency and minimizing environmental impacts remain key challenges. This study presents a novel approach by integrating wastewater-derived algae cultivation with ammonium hydroxide emulsion to enhance biodiesel performance. Chlorella vulgaris microalgae were grown in a medium of diluted human urine, where nutrient removal efficiency was evaluated, and biooil was extracted via solvent extraction. The resulting biodiesel was analyzed for elemental, chemical, and physicochemical properties. A 30 % blend of Chlorella vulgaris algae biodiesel (CVAB) with normal diesel fuel (NDF) was prepared. To further boost energy efficiency and emissions performance, ammonium hydroxide emulsion was added at concentrations of 5 % and 10 %. Results confirmed that wastewater-sourced algae cultivation is a viable method for sustainable biodiesel production. While CVAB's combustion characteristics were similar to NDF's, it exhibited a 7 % decrease in brake thermal efficiency and a 5 % increase in nitrogen oxide emissions. The addition of ammonium hydroxide emulsion notably improved both energy efficiency and emission profiles. This study highlights a breakthrough in using ammonium hydroxide emulsion to enhance algae biodiesel, making it a more competitive alternative to fossil fuels. Economically, this approach offers a dual advantage: utilizing low-cost wastewater for biodiesel production while improving fuel performance and reducing emissions.

Enhancing Sustainable Production of Biodiesel from Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge Oil Using Bio-Based Heterogeneous Catalyst

The swift exhaustion of natural oil reserves and worsening environmental issues have prompted the quest for an economical method to produce biofuels. The superiority of heterogeneous catalysis promotes the development of bio-based catalysts. Carbon materials prepared from agricultural and forestry biomass waste have good application prospects in catalysis. In the present study, Xanthoceras sorbifolia shell waste was used as the raw material, Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge Carbon (XC) was used as the catalyst carrier, and K2CO3 was used as the activator to prepare a heterogeneous catalyst (KXC). The heterogeneous catalyst was characterized by scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersion X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis techniques to evaluate its chemical composition, structure, and physical morphology. EDS and XPS revealed the presence of K metal, which provided an alkaline site for the transesterification reaction to produce biodiesel. The biodiesel yield was observed by gas chromatography−mass spectrometry (GCMS). Under the reaction conditions of a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 12:1, a reaction time of 90 min, a temperature of 65 °C, and a catalyst loading of 4 wt.% using 25KXC-600-4, the yield of biodiesel can reach 95.13 ± 0.82%. After being repeated five times, the yield was still 58.11 ± 3.80%. The catalyst has no waste generation, and has the characteristics of simple preparation and environmental friendliness, which make it a green heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production.

Bio-templating approach and DFT study of ZrMo@KIT-6 catalyst for the conversion of deep fried oil into sustainable biodiesel production

In this study, highly porous ZrMo@KIT-6 heterogeneous catalyst was developed using Aloevera gel along with Pluronic as a mixed template. The catalytic activity was executed in biodiesel production from low valued deep fried oil to develop a sustainable energy approach. The physiochemical properties of the developed catalyst were assessed in depth using different analytical techniques including, TGA, XRD, BET, TPD-NH3, FESEM- EDX and XRD analyses. It was noted that the catalyst synthesized with Aloevera gel and Pluronic mixed template possessed improved texture, morphological properties and evenly distributed active centers with total acidity of 0.95 mmol/g and surface area of 741.46 m2/g. These experimental results were further endorsed by DFT analysis. Moreover, the designed catalystexhibited paramounted catalytic efficacy in transesterification reaction of deep fried oil into biodiesel, providing a phenomenal 97.7 % biodiesel yield under optimal reaction conditions. Apart from this, the designed catalyst sustained catalytic activity up to five times with biodiesel yield 87 %. Thus, the designed catalyst presents a novel fuel strategy which will bring both financial and environmental sustainability in the future.

Enhancing the production and immobilization of cell‐bound lipase from yeast‐like fungus Magnusiomyces capitatusA4C for sustainable biodiesel production in a packed bed reactor

AbstractMagnusiomyces capitatus A4C, a mycelium‐forming and lipase‐producing yeast‐like fungus, was employed in a five‐level factorial design to optimize the collective and interactive influences of carbon, nitrogen and emulsifying sources and their possible effects on cell‐bound lipase (CBL) and cell biomass production. The cell culture of M. capitatus A4C was incubated along with biomass support particles (BSPs) to immobilize the enzyme while anchoring CBL on their surfaces. Among the BSPs tested, CBL immobilized on loofah sponge under optimized conditions showed a substantial hydrolytic activity of 12.7 U mL−1 and a cell‐loading capacity of 0.61 g g−1 of BSPs. Immobilized CBL was applied for biodiesel production via transesterification and esterification. The conversion percentage of triacylglycerides was approximately 100% at 24 h with the addition of water at 1:1 (v/v). The conversion of oleic acid into biodiesel via esterification was 100% at 48 h in the presence of 15% (v/v) isooctane. Further, biodiesel production was scaled up using a packed bed reactor. The batch production of biodiesel in a packed bed reactor through transesterification was 96.2%, with a circulation flow rate of 5.5 mL min−1 for 18 h. On the other hand, oleic acid conversion into biodiesel via esterification was 99.5%, with a circulation flow rate of 5.5 mL min−1 for 24 h. Further investigation revealed that the immobilized biocatalyst exhibited higher stability with esterification (85.3% fatty acid methyl ester) after ten repeated cycles.

Influence of multi-stress factors on the growth of Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus abundans using response surface methodology.

This study evaluated the biofuel production potential of two algal species, Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus abundans, under stress conditions induced by nutrient supplementation or starvation at varying light intensities. Central composite face-centered design response surface methodology (CCFD-RSM) was employed to optimize stress conditions by varying the sodium nitrate (NaNO3), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K2HPO4), cultivation time, and light intensity. The study included both C. pyrenoidosa and S. abundans, which presented increased biomass yields when subjected to nutrient starvation. Under the optimized conditions, the dry biomass yield was 98.26mg/L for C. pyrenoidosa and 110mg/L for S. abundans. Lipid yields were approximately 22.47% for C. pyrenoidosa and 29.06% for S. abundans under these optimized growth conditions. The optimized parameters for maximum biomass and lipid production were identified as C. pyrenoidosa, and the optimized conditions required 0.805g/L NaNO3, 0.052g/L K2HPO4, 0.099g/L KH2PO4, 17days of culture, and 5168.39lx of light intensity. For S. abundans, the optimal conditions were 1.065g/L NaNO3, 0.071g/L K2HPO4, 0.058g/L KH2PO4, 22days of cultivation, and 2897lx of light intensity. Overall, both C. pyrenoidosa and S. abundans have emerged as promising candidates for sustainable biodiesel production, highlighting their potential under stress conditions induced by nutrient modulation and variable light intensities.

Waste-Derived Catalysts for Sustainable Biodiesel Production: Current Status on Catalyst Development and Future Prospectives

Waste-Derived Catalysts for Sustainable Biodiesel Production: Current Status on Catalyst Development and Future Prospectives

Response surface optimization of a single-step castor oil-based biodiesel production process using a stator-rotor hydrodynamic cavitation reactor.

In order to combat environmental pollution and the depletion of non-renewable fuels, feasible, eco-friendly, and sustainable biodiesel production from non-edible oil crops must be augmented. This study is the first to intensify biodiesel production from castor oil using a self-manufactured cylindrical stator-rotor hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. In order to model and optimize the biodiesel yield, a response surface methodology based on a 1/2 fraction-three-level face center composite design of three levels and five experimental factors was used. The predicted ideal operating parameters were found to be 52.51°C, 1164.8rpm rotor speed, 27.43min, 8.4:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, and 0.89% KOH concentration. That yielded 95.51% biodiesel with a 99% fatty acid methyl ester content. It recorded a relatively low energy consumption and high cavitation yield of 6.09 × 105J and 12 × 10-3g/J, respectively. The generated biodiesel and bio-/petro-diesel blends had good fuel qualities that were on par with global norms and commercially available Egyptian petro-diesel. The preliminary cost analysis assured the feasibility of the applied process.

Transesterification of waste cooking oil for biodiesel production using alkaline-modified graphitic carbon nitride heterogeneous catalyst

ABSTRACT Developing efficient, stable, cost-effective, and environmentally benign heterogeneous catalysts for transesterification is highly required for sustainable biodiesel production. The present study explores the biodiesel production from waste cooking oil (WCO) using graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) and its alkaline-modified nanocatalyst. The catalysts were characterised by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). From the XRD analysis, crystalline sizes of g-C3N4 and alkaline g-C3N4 were found to be 26 and 29 nm, respectively. Transesterification of WCO was carried out at 60 °C for a reaction time of 2 h using 2 wt.% of g-C3N4 and alkaline g-C3N4. Transesterification reaction catalysed by alkaline-modified g-C3N4 was found with a higher yield of biodiesel (89%) than the biodiesel yield (78%) with transesterification reaction catalysed by g-C3N4. The recyclability of both catalysts was also evaluated by reusing them for up to the 5th cycle. The obtained biodiesel was analyzed by using FTIR and GC-MS. The synthesised biodiesel was found to have significant level of monounsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids, which make it usefuel for use as fuel. Some physicochemical properties of the obtained biodiesel were also calculated and found appropriate as per the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. With high reusability and good catalytic activity, the synthesised alkaline-modified g-C3N4 can be employed as a viable option for biodiesel production from WCO.

Environmentally sustainable production of biodiesel from low-cost lipid feedstock using a zirconium-based metal-organic framework sulfonated solid catalyst

Environmentally sustainable production of biodiesel from low-cost lipid feedstock using a zirconium-based metal-organic framework sulfonated solid catalyst

A CIRCULAR ECONOMY APPROACH TO PRODUCE LOW-COST BIODIESEL USING AGRO-INDUSTRIAL AND PACKING WASTES FROM MEXICO: VALORIZATION, HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS REACTION ROUTES AND PRODUCT CHARACTERIZATION

This manuscript describes a circular economy approach to produce low-cost biodiesel using Tetra Pak (TP) and Mexican biomass wastes. Lipids were extracted from non-edible biomass with hexane. Corozo seeds contained 53 wt% lipids, while remaining biomass had <5 wt%. Corozo seed oil was selected to produce biodiesel with both homogeneous and heterogeneous reaction systems. A heterogeneous catalyst was synthesized from TP and its performance was compared with KOH in homogeneous systems using corozo and soybean oils. The best reaction conditions were identified through the Signal/Noise ratio analysis. TP catalyst achieved biodiesel yields of 12.7-98.11% (corozo) and 87.0-98.4% (soybean), while KOH systems showed 7.2-96.3% and 64.6-98.5%, respectively. These reactive systems were endothermic and fit to pseudo-second order kinetic model. Activation energies for KOH-catalyzed systems were 86.89 (corozo) and 43.72 (soybean) kJ/mol, while TP-catalyzed systems showed 78.31 and 105.68 kJ/mol, respectively. TP catalyst reuse was tested, and the loss of catalytic activity was attributed to active sites poisoning. Biomass, catalysts, and reaction products were characterized (e.g., FTIR, ICP, XRD, EDX-SEM, WDXRF, XPS, basicity and nitrogen adsorption isotherms). The TP catalyst showed competitive performance with respect to KOH, contributing to a sustainable biodiesel production chain viable for commercial implementation in Mexico.

Utilization of Nile tilapia viscera oil and lipase as a novel and potential feedstock and catalyst for sustainable biodiesel production

The viscera of Nile tilapia, fish processing industry waste, was utilized to extract oil and lipase and used as a low-cost feedstock and catalyst, respectively, for producing biodiesel. The investigation aimed to improve the process of extracting oil from Nile tilapia viscera (NTVO) by a wet rendering method, and to use it for manufacturing biodiesel using Nile tilapia viscera lipase (NTVL)-based catalyst. Heating Nile tilapia viscera waste at 80 °C for 60 min was the best condition for oil separation, with 51.49 % oil recovery and 6.30 % yield. NTVO characteristics suggested the suitability for biodiesel production. Optimizing the synthesis of biodiesel from NTVO utilizing NTVL catalyst was also studied. The catalyst dose of 20 kUnits, reaction temperature of 35 °C, water content of 1 %, reaction period of 18 h, and methanol to oil molar ratio of 4:1 were found to provide the greatest biodiesel yield (96.9 %) (p < 0.05). ATR-FTIR analysis confirmed the conversion of NTVO to biodiesel. The physicochemical properties of biodiesel obtained met the requirement specified by international standards, namely EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751. These findings highlighted the potential of NTVO and NTVL as a substrate and catalyst for biodiesel synthesis, which might alleviate environmental pollution and disposal issues.

Optimizing Algal Oil Extraction and Transesterification Parameters through RSM, PCA, and MRA for Sustainable Biodiesel Production

This study presents a comprehensive optimization of algal oil extraction and transesterification for sustainable biodiesel production. Freshwater Spirogyra algae underwent Soxhlet extraction using n-hexane. response surface methodology (RSM), principal component analysis (PCA), and multivariate regression analysis (MRA) were employed to investigate the effects of biomass–solvent ratio (BSR), algae particle size (APS), and extraction-contact time (E-CT) on algal oil yield (AOY). The extracted oil was then converted to biodiesel via transesterification, and the impacts of the methanol–oil ratio (MOR) and transesterification-contact time (T-CT) on biodiesel conversion efficiency (BCE) were analyzed. Results demonstrate that optimal BSR, APS, and E-CT for maximal AOY are 1:7, 400 µm, and 3–4 h, respectively. For transesterification, a MOR of 12:1 and a T-CT of 4 h yielded the highest BCE. Predictive models exhibited exceptional accuracy, with R2 values of 0.916 and 0.950 for AOY and BCE, respectively. The produced biodiesel complied with ASTM D6751 and EN 14214, showcasing its potential for renewable energy applications.

Experimental and computational investigations of biodiesel production from castor oil using Li-doped salmon fish bone-supported lanthanum oxide catalyst in a micro-reactor

Ensuring efficient and sustainable biodiesel production is essential for addressing environmental concerns and meeting global energy demands. This study aims to optimize the transesterification of castor oil through the development of a distinctive Li-doped-salmon fish bone (SFB)-supported La2O3 composite catalyst within a micro-reactor setup. The optimal catalyst (3 % Li/SFB-La) was thoroughly evaluated for its physicochemical features employing a range of characterization techniques, including XRD, XPS, BET, FESEM, TEM, TGA/DSC, and FT-IR. According to density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the function of Li dopants, which have a lower electronegativity (0.98) compared to La (1.1), is to enhance the charge transfer capability of La sites, thereby increasing their reactivity with triglycerides. In the interim, we determined the optimized reaction conditions: a 6:1 methanol/oil molar ratio and a 5 wt % catalyst loading at 338 K. Under these parameters, an impressive 99.38 % conversion was achieved within 1.5 h. Furthermore, the 3 % Li/SFB-La composite catalyst exhibited remarkable stability, retaining its high activity throughout 7 cycles without any significant loss of efficacy. Moreover, the transesterification reaction kinetics were thoroughly investigated, revealing a reaction rate constant of 1.17 h−1 and an activation energy of 14.46 kJ/mol.

Sustainable production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil using magnesium oxide nano catalyst: An optimization study

Biodiesel is rapidly becoming an efficient substitute for fuel and a potentially significant future renewable energy source. In recent years, used cooking oil has been used as a feedstock for biofuel to reduce production costs. Due to its high catalytic activity, low cost, and eco-friendliness, Nano magnesium oxide (MgO) has attracted attention as a catalyst for biodiesel production. Our work presents the preparation of nanomagnesium oxide (MgO) by the sol–gel method, and its characterization. Optimum conditions and the productive combination of waste cooking oil, methanol, and the synthesized nanocatalyst were predicted using response surface methodology. The optimum conditions were methanol to oil ratio of 7:1, temperature of 50 °C and time of 60 min. The expected values for the yield of biodiesel production responses are quite like the actual values, demonstrating the consistency of the models used for establishing a relationship between the independent process variables and the responses. The predicted model's F-value was 9.09 indicating that the model is significant. The model's pure error had a poor correlation, as the "Lack of Fit F-values” 4.16. The quadratic model fits the data well because the R-squared value for the model equation 92%. The expected values for the yield of biodiesel production responses are quite like the actual values, demonstrating the consistency of the models used for establishing a relationship between the independent process variables and the responses. Biodiesel was characterized using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.

Comparative assessment for biodiesel production from low-cost feedstocks of third oil generation

Biodiesel offers a sustainable fossil fuel alternative, highlighting the importance of third-generation feedstocks like macroalgae and waste frying oils (WFO) from palm, sunflower, and corn. This study investigates their physicochemical properties using different feedstocks towards biodiesel standard specifications. The feedstocks were synthesised through transesterification process at operating parameters molar ratio of methanol to oil (3:1–12:1), catalyst concentration (0.5–3 wt %), reaction time (60–240 min), and reaction temperature (55–75 °C). The fatty acid compositions were analysed using GC-Fid shows Azolla filiculoides (54.0 %), Ulva lactuca (56.0 %), WFO palm (56.5 %), WFO sunflower (85.7 %) and WFO corn (82.7 %) biodiesels dominated by unsaturated fatty acids have good physicochemical properties such as densities (872–883 kg/m3), kinematic viscosities (3.52–5.3 mm2/s), cloud points (10 °C to −10 °C), pour points (8 °C to −12 °C), cetane numbers (44.4–57.9), heating values (38.60–41.68 MJ/kg), and iodine values (60.94–129.15 g I2/100 g) meet the specification of biodiesel standards. This study reveals fatty acid profiles significantly impact the physicochemical properties of biodiesel. Among all feedstocks, Azolla filiculoides demonstrating particularly promising characteristics for biodiesel production. These findings advocate for the increased exploration of third-generation feedstocks in the quest for sustainable biodiesel production processes.

Sustainable biodiesel production from Cassia javanica oil with eggshell-derived catalyst: optimization, engine performance, and emission study

ABSTRACT As global energy demand rises, it is crucial to explore sustainable alternatives. Biodiesel emerges as a safe, reusable, and eco-friendly energy source. It offers a greener option to petro-diesel while maintaining reliable performance. This study focuses on producing biodiesel from novel non edible feedstock Cassia javanica seeds. It uses a calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst derived from eggshells. CaO, a highly active base catalyst, was confirmed through various analyses. Using Cassia javanica seed oil as a source of non-edible methyl ester, this study optimizes transesterification parameters. A yield of 90.14% was achieved by transesterifying Cassia javanica oil at 60°C with 2% catalyst and 15:1 methanol to oil ratio. Based on the results, Cassia javanica methyl esters were found to conform to ASTM D6751 and EN 14,214 standard specifications, with kinematic viscosity of 3.556 mm2/s and acid value of 0.41 mg KOH/g, cloud point of −4°C, pour point of −2°C, flash point of 148°C and cetane index of 59 min. The biodiesel properties were also estimated. Tests revealed that blends had lower emissions and improved engine performance compared to pure fuel. Higher blends showed better engine performance. The B20 blend was found to be the most effective. It enhances engine performance and reduces emissions. C. javanica could be a viable source of biodiesel production and engine operation. As a result of sensitivity analyses, NPV varied with feedstock costs and biodiesel selling prices. In India, interventions are needed to make B20 policy based on second-generation technology profitable. The policy with feedstocks from the second generation of technology is technically viable, but interventions are needed to make it economically viable.

Sustainable Biodiesel Production via Biogenic Catalyzed Transesterification of Baobab Oil Methyl Ester and Optimization Process

Biomass diesel is one of the sustainable and renewable sources of energy envisaged to hold a prominent position in the world energy infrastructure. In this study, biodiesel was production from baobab seed oil by transesterification using biogenic heterogeneous catalyst, derived from mixed wastes of white chicken eggshells and banana fruit peels. The production process was analyzed and statistically analyzed using Box-Behnken Design-Response Surface Methodology (BBD-RSM). The influential transesterification reaction parameters investigated with their ranges include reaction time (40–80 min), molar ratio of oil to methanol (1:9–1:15) and catalyst weight (3–5 wt%). The nano-catalyst (CaO-BFP-850 NPs) was prepared by calcination at high temperature of 850 °C for 4 h, and its properties were found to contain majorly the basic elements of Ca and K when investigated with analytical instruments such as SEM, EDS, DSC-TGA, FT-IR, and XRD. The regeneration test of the CaO-BFP-850 NPs conducted showed it could be reused for more than four cycles with less catalytic efficiency reduction. The ideal conditions instituted by BBD-RSM was 75 min of reaction time, 12.8:1 molar ratio of oil to methanol, and 4.08 wt% CaO-BFP-850 at 65 °C and 650 rpm constant temperature and agitation speed respectively, with the validated biodiesel yield of 96.70 wt%. The assessment of the quality of the biodiesel produced showed compliance with the standard specifications of ASTM D6751, EN 14241, and SANS 833.