Survey Of Family , Income And Employment Research Articles

Housing liquidation and financial adequacy of retirees in New Zealand

This study investigates the impact of housing on financial adequacy of New Zealand retirees using the Survey of Family, Income, and Employment (SoFIE) data for the period 2002–2009. We examine the differential effect of housing liquidation options, rent imputation and asset liquidity on financial adequacy. We report evidence of financial adequacy variation across five housing liquidation options and this is influenced by rent imputation. The results show that non-homeowners are less financially adequate than homeowners. We find that Māori, renters and individuals living in multi-dwelling occupancies have much lower levels of financial adequacy. Individuals of Pākehā or Asian ethnicity, homeowners and those living alone benefit more from imputed rent derived through home ownership. Our study highlights the need for the New Zealand government to address the lack of suitable public housing, rising housing and rental prices and mandate compulsory contributory retirement savings plans.

The Longer Term Impacts of Job Displacement on Labour Market Outcomes

This paper analyses the longer term impacts of involuntary job loss of workers subsequent employment, earnings, and income support in New Zealand. It uses data from the Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE) to identify job displacements over the period 2001–10, matched to administrative data from Statistics New Zealand’s Integrated Data Infrastructure (IDI) covering the period 1999–2015, to facilitate at least five years of post-displacement observations. Following Dixon and Mare (2013), our analysis focuses on workers who had been employed for at least one year before their job displacement. Using both regression-adjustment and propensity score matching methods, we estimate that experiencing a job displacement substantially affected workers employment, earnings and income over the following five years. Compared to workers who did not lose their jobs, we estimate their employment rate was 20-25% lower in the year following displacement and, although their employment gradually improved, was still 8-12% lower five years later. Similarly, we estimate displaced workers’ conditional earnings and total income were 25-30% lower in the first year and 13-22% lower five years after being displaced. Such adverse effects are partly counterbalanced by higher levels of welfare benefit receipt and income support: benefit receipt was 6-11% and 3-4% higher after one and five years. We also find that the impacts were stronger for workers displaced from jobs during the great recession from 2008, with about 5% larger short and longer-term effects on employment, which were balanced by 3-5% higher rates of benefit receipt.

Earnings Dynamics and Measurement Error in Matched Survey and Administrative Data

This paper analyses the measurement error and earnings dynamics of two sources of individuals' annual earnings from Statistics New Zealand's Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE) and administrative linked employer-employee data (LEED) earnings reported in the Integrated Database Infrastructure (IDI). First, SoFIE reported earnings are 2-4% lower than LEED earnings on average, and slightly more variable; while the difference between the two reported earnings accounts for 25-30% of the variance in either report. Second, we reject the joint hypothesis that SoFIE earnings are reported with classical measurement error and LEED earnings are recorded without error. We estimate that the statistical reliability of LEED measured earnings (0.87{0.91) is higher than that of SoFIE earnings (0.83{0.85). Third, the differences between SoFIE and LEED earnings are negatively correlated with both individuals' average (LEED) earnings over the sample period and their annual transitory deviations. These differences can be characterised longitudinally by both persistent and serially correlated transitory factors. Fourth, we formulate and estimate a model for SoFIE and LEED earnings, which includes dynamics for true earnings and for measurement errors in both SoFIE and LEED. Female earnings are more variable than males', due both to permanent and transitory effects, and transitory shocks are relatively stronger for women. Allowing for measurement error in LEED, we find no evidence of mean-reverting error in SoFIE. Fifth, the models imply measurement errors dominate the observed changes in male earnings, and account for large fractions of the changes in female earnings.

Examining the role of tenure, household crowding and housing affordability on psychological distress, using longitudinal data

BackgroundThe association between good mental health and housing circumstances is well established. Tenure, household crowding and housing affordability have all been linked to mental health and psychological distress. These cross-sectional...

Is cost-related non-collection of prescriptions associated with a reduction in health? Findings from a large-scale longitudinal study of New Zealand adults

ObjectiveTo investigate whether cost-related non-collection of prescription medication is associated with a decline in health.SettingsNew Zealand Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE)-Health.ParticipantsData from 17 363 participants with at least...

Do changes in neighborhood and household levels of smoking and deprivation result in changes in individual smoking behavior? A large-scale longitudinal study of New Zealand adults.

Health behavior takes place within social contexts. In this study, we investigated whether changes in exposure to neighborhood deprivation and smoking prevalence and to household smoking were associated with change in personal smoking behavior. Three waves of biannual data collection (2004-2009) in a New Zealand longitudinal study, the Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE)-Health, were used, with 13,815 adults (persons aged ≥15 years) contributing to the analyses. Smoking status was dichotomized as current smoking versus never/ex-smoking. Fixed-effects regression analyses removed time-invariant confounding and adjusted for time-varying covariates (neighborhood smoking prevalence and deprivation, household smoking, labor force status, income, household tenure, and family status). A between-wave decile increase in neighborhood deprivation was significantly associated with increased odds of smoking (odds ratio (OR) = 1.08, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 1.14), but a between-wave increase in neighborhood smoking prevalence was not (OR = 1.04, 95% CI: 0.98, 1.10). Changing household exposures between waves to live with another smoker (compared with a nonsmoker (referent)) increased the odds of smoking (OR = 2.48, 95% CI: 1.84, 3.34), as did changing to living in a sole-adult household (OR = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.07, 2.14). Tobacco control policies and programs should address the broader household and neighborhood circumstances within which individual smoking takes place.

Do changes in social and economic factors lead to changes in drinking behavior in young adults? Findings from three waves of a population based panel study.

BackgroundSocial and economic measures in early childhood or adolescence appear to be associated with drinking behavior in young adulthood. Yet, there has been little investigation to what extent drinking behavior of young adults changes within young adulthood when they experience changes in social and economic measures in this significant period of their life.MethodsThe impact of changes in living arrangement, education/employment, income, and deprivation on changes in average weekly alcohol units of consumption and frequency of hazardous drinking sessions per month in young adults was investigated. In total, 1,260 respondents of the New Zealand longitudinal Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE) aged 18-24 years at baseline were included.ResultsYoung adults who moved from a family household into a single household experienced an increase of 2.32 (95% CI 1.02 to 3.63) standard drinks per week, whereas those young adults who became parents experienced a reduction in both average weekly units of alcohol (β = -3.84, 95% CI -5.44 to -2.23) and in the frequency of hazardous drinking sessions per month (β = -1.17, 95% CI -1.76 to -0.57). A one unit increase in individual deprivation in young adulthood was associated with a 0.48 (95% CI 0.10 to 0.86) unit increase in average alcohol consumption and a modest increase in the frequency of hazardous drinking sessions (β = 0.25, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.39).ConclusionsThis analysis suggests that changes in living arrangement and individual deprivation are associated with changes in young adult’s drinking behaviors. Alcohol harm-minimization interventions therefore need to take into account the social and economic context of young people’s lives to be effective.

Health shocks adversely impact participation in the labour force in a working age population: a longitudinal analysis

It is well understood that health affects labour force participation (LFP). However, much of the published research has been on older (retiring age) populations and using subjective health measures. This paper aims to assess the impact of an objective measure of 'health shock' (cancer registration or hospitalisation) on LFP in a working age population using longitudinal panel study data and fixed effect regression analyses. Seven waves of data from 2002-09 from the longitudinal Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE) were used, including working aged individuals who consented to have their survey information linked to health records (n=6,780). Fixed effect conditional logistic regression was used to model the impact of health shocks (hospitalisation or cancer registration) in the previous year on labour force participation at date of annual interview. Models were stratified by gender, age group (25-39 years, 40-54 years) and gender by age group. A health shock was associated with a significantly increased risk of subsequent non-participation in the labour force (odds ratio 1.54, 95%CI 1.30-1.82). Although interactions of age, sex and age by sex with health shock were not statistically significant, the association was largest in younger men and women. Using an objective measure of health, we have shown that a health shock adversely affects subsequent labour force participation. There are a number of policy and practice implications relating to support for working age people who have hospitalisations.

Income‐related health inequalities in working age men and women in Australia and New Zealand

Objective : To examine income-related inequalities in health in working age men and women in Australia and New Zealand. Methods : We used data from two longitudinal surveys, Wave 8 (2008) of the Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey and Wave 7 (2008/2009) of the New Zealand Survey of Family Income and Employment (SoFIE). We compared concentration indices (a measure of income-related health inequality) that examined the distribution of general and mental health-related quality of life scores (from the SF-36) across income in working age (20-65 year old) men and women. Decomposition analyses of the concentration indices were done to identify the relative contribution of various determinants to the income-related health inequality. Results : General health (GH) scores generally decline with age, and mental health (MH) scores increase with age, in both surveys. Income-related health inequalities were present in both the HILDA and SoFIE samples, with better health in high income groups. Decomposition analyses found that income, area deprivation and being inactive in the labour force were major contributors to income-related health inequality, in both surveys, and for both health outcomes. Conclusions and implications : Despite some baseline differences in income-related health inequalities using Australian and New Zealand surveys, we found similar modifiable determinants, which could be targeted to improve health inequalities in both countries.

Investigation of Options for a New Longitudinal Household Survey: Issues and Options Paper

We examine arguments for a new Longitudinal Household Survey (LHS) in New Zealand, and design and governance arrangements that would best realise the value of a new LHS. Other instruments such as cohort studies, cross-sectional surveys, the census and longitudinally linked administrative data will only go part way in filling the gap left by the end of SoFIE (Survey of Family Income and Employment Dynamics). There are some key areas of social science and policy focus, such as the dynamics, causes and consequences of poverty spells, that will only ever be clarified by data from an LHS. In addition, a purpose-designed LHS will enable a wide range of phenomena to be investigated in a multidisciplinary and household context using internationally comparable concepts that can be supplemented over time in response to emerging issues. The next step is to define a specific option for a new LHS, and evaluate prospective research and policy benefits against the costs.

Differential loss of participants does not necessarily cause selection bias

Most research is affected by differential participation, where individuals who do not participate have different characteristics to those who do. This is often assumed to induce selection bias. However, selection bias only occurs if the exposure-outcome association differs for participants compared to non-participants. We empirically demonstrate that selection bias does not necessarily occur when participation varies in a study. We used data from three waves of the longitudinal Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE). We examined baseline associations of labour market activity and education with self-rated health using logistic regression in five participation samples: A) the original sample at year one (n=22,260); B) those remaining in the sample (n=18,360); C) those (at year 3) consenting to data linkage (n=14,350); D) drop outs over three years (n=3,895); and E) those who dropped out or did not consent (n=7,905). Loss to follow-up was more likely among lower socioeconomic groups and those with poorer health. However, for labour market activity and education, the odds of reporting fair/poor health were similar across all samples. Comparisons of the mutually exclusive samples (C and E) showed no difference in the odds ratios after adjustment for sociodemographic (participation) variables. Thus, there was little evidence of selection bias. Differential loss to follow-up (drop out) need not lead to selection bias in the association between exposure (labour market activity and education) and outcome (self-rated health).

Comparing self-rated health and self-assessed change in health in a longitudinal survey: Which is more valid?

Self-rated health (SRH) is commonly used in longitudinal analyses as a repeated outcome measure. This assumes that computed changes in SRH over time truly represent within-individual changes in underlying health. The longitudinal validity of SRH, however, is threatened by ceiling effects (where people reporting the highest level of SRH cannot report subsequent improved health), insensitivity to small changes within SRH categories, reference group effects (where individuals assess their health changes relative to their peers) and stability in SRH even when change in underlying health is occurring. We assessed the longitudinal validity of SRH by comparing computed changes in SRH with a measure of self-assessed change in health (SACH). We used two waves of data (2003–2005) from the New Zealand longitudinal Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE). Computed change in SRH and SACH were compared directly and also in regression models using an objective measure of health outcome change (hospitalisations within the past year).Computed change in SRH and SACH were not well correlated, consistent with ceiling and/or categorisation effects in SRH. In regression models, SACH was more strongly predictive of hospitalisation than computed change in SRH (worse SACH was associated with an increased odds of hospitalisation of 3.7 compared to 1.8 for decreased computed change in SRH). SACH may be affected by recall bias, but if SRH is used as a repeated outcome measure in longitudinal analyses, results may also be biased, if change in SRH does not occur in response to significant health events.

Gender differences in financial barriers to primary health care in New Zealand

Gender differences in health status and use of health care services have been established in the developed world with less attention paid to gender differences in financial barriers to primary care. Such barriers represent potentially avoidable mortality and morbidity. To examine gender differences in financial barriers to New Zealand primary health care. Data from SoFIE-health, an add-on to Statistics New Zealand-led Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE), analysed using logistic regression, controlling for demographic, socioeconomic, health behaviour and health variables. Access to primary health care includes general practitioner and dental care and prescription drugs. Odds of deferring seeing their doctor(s), dentist and buying a prescription respectively at least once during preceding 12 months, because they could not afford the cost of a visit or prescription, were greater for women compared to men (Odds Ratio (OR) 1.82, 95% CI: 1.67-1.99; OR 2.05, 95% CI: 1.78-2.34; and OR 1.58, 95% CI: 1.47-1.71; respectively). Adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, health behaviour and health status attenuated OR to 1.45 (1.31-1.61) for deferring medical visit, 1.47 (1.26-1.71) buying prescription, and 1.35 (1.24-1.46) for deferring dental visit, although confidence intervals still excluded the null. Gender significantly associated with reporting cost barriers to primary health care, regardless of individual deprivation or income levels, suggesting that primary health care policies targeting gender-specific factors are warranted. Policy measures to reduce co-payments may improve access to care for both women and men, and may have positive health implications.

P1-409 Differential loss of participants does not necessarily cause selection bias

BackgroundMost research is affected by differential participation, where individuals who do not participate have different characteristics to those who do. This is often assumed to induce selection bias. However, selection...

The association between failed quit attempts and increased levels of psychological distress in smokers in a large New Zealand cohort.

BackgroundAlthough the association between smoking status and poorer mental health has been well documented, the association between quit status and psychological distress is less clear. The aim of the present study is to investigate the association of smoking status and quit status with psychological distress.MethodsData for this study is from a single year of the Survey of Families, Income and Employment (SoFIE) conducted in New Zealand (2004/05) (n = 18,525 respondents). Smoking status and quit status were treated as exposure variables, and psychological distress (Kessler-10) was treated as the outcome variable. Logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the association of smoking with psychological distress in the whole adult population and quit status with psychological distress in the ex- and current-smoking population.ResultsCurrent smokers had higher rates of high and very high psychological distress compared to never smokers (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.45; 95% CI: 1.24-1.69). Unsuccessful quitters had much higher levels of high to very high levels of psychological distress (16%) than any other group. Moreover, compared to long-term ex-smokers, unsuccessful quitters had a much higher odds of high to very high levels of psychological distress (aOR = 1.73; 95% CI: 1.36-2.21).ConclusionThese findings suggest that the significant association between smoking and psychological distress might be partly explained by increased levels of psychological distress among current smokers who made a quit attempt in the last year. This issue needs further study as it has implications for optimising the design of quitting support.

The association of food security with psychological distress in New Zealand and any gender differences

Food security (access to safe, nutritious, affordable food) is intrinsically linked to feelings of stress or distress and it is strongly associated with socioeconomic factors. However, the impact of food insecurity on mental health, independent of confounding socioeconomic factors, is not clear. We investigated the association of food insecurity with psychological distress in New Zealand, controlling for socioeconomic factors. Secondarily, we examined the association in males and females. We used data from the Survey of Families, Income and Employment (SoFIE) ( N = 18,955). Respondents were classified as food insecure if, in the last 12 months, they: used special food grants/banks, had to buy cheaper food to pay for other things, or went without fresh fruit and vegetables often. Psychological distress was measured using the Kessler-10 scale dichotomised at low (10–15) and moderate to high (16+). Logistic regression analyses were used to investigate the association of food insecurity with psychological distress using a staged modelling approach. Interaction models included an interaction between food security and gender, as well as interactions between gender and all other covariates (significant at p-value < 0.1). Models were repeated, stratified by gender. A strong relationship between food insecurity and psychological distress was found (crude odds ratio OR 3.4). Whilst substantially reduced, the association remained after adjusting for confounding demographic and socioeconomic variables (adjusted OR 1.8). In stratified models, food insecure females had slightly higher odds for psychological distress (fully adjusted OR 2.0) than males (fully adjusted OR 1.5). As such, an independent association of food insecurity with psychological distress was found in both males and females – slightly more so in females. However, we cannot rule out residual confounding as an explanation for the independent association and any apparent gender interaction.

Understanding the determinants of consent for linkage of administrative health data with a longitudinal survey

The Survey of Families, Income and Employment (SoFIE) is a panel income study with a health component, including data linkage to national health databases. This paper investigates factors that predict consent to data linkage. SoFIE participants were asked permission to link their SoFIE records to administrative health data in Wave 3 of data collection. Logistic regression was used to investigate the association of sociodemographic variables with consent to record linkage. Of Wave 3 participants 79.4% consented to health record linkage. Taking into account prior attrition, consent and matching the overall participation rate was 60.9%. Participants reporting Māori, Pacific and Asian ethnicity had lower odds of consenting. There was a strong relationship between the presence of co-morbid disease and consent to linkage. This study has shown that consent to link health information to survey records was high and the survey provides a rich and unique dataset for longitudinal analyses.

The association of childhood socio-economic position and psychological distress in adulthood: is it mediated by adult socio-economic position?

There is substantial evidence that lower socioeconomic position (SEP) is associated with poorer mental health outcomes. However, uncertainties exist about the origins of socioeconomic gradients in mental health problems and the relative contributions of both childhood and adult SEP. In this study we assess the association of childhood SEP with psychological distress in adulthood and investigate how much of this association is mediated by adult SEP. Data for this cross-sectional analysis came from Wave 3 of the Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE) in New Zealand (n=14,470). Childhood SEP was measured using parental occupation recalled at age 10. Non-specific psychological distress was assessed using the Kessler 10 scale (K10). Adult SEP was measured using five socioeconomic indicators (area deprivation, household income, wealth, labour market activity, education). The association of childhood SEP with psychological distress before and after controlling for confounders and adult SEP indicators was determined using logistic regression with the K10 dichotomised at low/moderate versus high/very high. Sensitivity analyses included birth cohort and sex. There was a weak inverse relationship between increasing proportion of psychological distress with lower childhood SEP. Adjusted for age, sex and ethnicity, respondents with low compared to high childhood SEP had 1.35 greater odds of reporting high psychological distress (95% CI 1.13-1.60). Adjustment for adult mediating SEP variables led to a 77% reduction in the excess odds ratio to 1.08 (95% CI 0.90-1.29). The relationship did not significantly differ by birth cohort or sex. This finding is consistent with the current evidence that socioeconomic circumstances in adulthood are important determinants of inequalities in adult mental health and mediate much of the association of childhood SEP with adult psychological distress.

What are the determinants of food insecurity in New Zealand and does this differ for males and females?

Food insecurity is a lack of assured access to sufficient nutritious food. We aimed to investigate the demographic and socio-economic determinants of food insecurity in New Zealand and whether these determinants vary between males and females. We used data from the longitudinal Survey of Families, Income and Employment (SoFIE) (n=18,950). Respondents were classified as food insecure if, in the past 12 months, they had to use special food grants or food banks, been forced to buy cheaper food to pay for other things, or had to go without fresh fruit and vegetables often. Logistic regression analyses were used to investigate the association of demographic and socio-economic factors on food insecurity. Models were repeated stratifying by males and females. More than 15% of the SoFIE population in NZ were food insecure in 2004/05. The prevalence of food insecurity was much greater in females (19%) than males (12%). The adjusted odds of food insecurity was significantly higher in females compared to males (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.5-1.8). In univariate analyses, food insecurity was associated with sole parenthood, unmarried status, younger age groups, Māori and Pacific ethnicity, worse self-rated health status, renting, being unemployed and lower socioeconomic status. Income was the strongest predictor of food insecurity in multivariate modelling (OR 4.9, 95%CI 4.0-5.9 for lowest household income quintile versus highest). The associations of demographic and socioeconomic factors with food insecurity were similar in males and females. Food insecurity is a timely and relevant issue, as it affects a significant number of New Zealanders. Targeted policy interventions aimed at increasing money available in households are needed.

Ethnic differences in access to prescription medication because of cost in New Zealand

ObjectivesThis paper aims to examine ethnic differences in financial barriers to access to prescription medication in New Zealand.MethodsData from SoFIE-Health (wave 3), which is an add-on to the Statistics New...