Soil Surfactant Research Articles

Reuse potential of laundry greywater for irrigation based on growth, water and nutrient use of tomato

Greywater is considered as a valuable resource with a high reuse potential for irrigation of household lawns and gardens. However, there are possibilities of surfactant and sodium accumulation in soil from reuse of greywater which may affect agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability adversely. We conducted a glasshouse experiment to examine variation in growth, water and nutrient use of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Grosse Lisse) using tap water (TW), laundry greywater (GW) and solutions of low and high concentration of a detergent surfactant (LC and HC, respectively) as irrigation treatments. Each treatment was replicated five times using a randomised block design. Measurements throughout the experiment showed greywater to be significantly more alkaline and saline than the other types of irrigation water. Although all plants received 16 irrigations over a period of 9 weeks until flowering, there were little or no significant effects of irrigation treatments on plant growth. Soil water retention following irrigation reduced significantly when plants were irrigated with GW or surfactant solutions on only three of 12 occasions. On one occasion, water use measured as evapotranspiration (ET) with GW irrigation was similar to TW, but it was significantly higher than the plants receiving HC irrigation. At harvest, various components of plant biomass and leaf area for GW irrigated plants were found to be similar or significantly higher than the TW irrigated plants with a common trend of GW ⩾ TW > LC ⩾ HC. Whole-plant concentration was measured for 12 essential plant nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo and B) and Na (often considered as a beneficial nutrient). Irrigation treatments affected the concentration of four nutrients (P, Fe, Zn and Na) and uptake of seven nutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe and B) significantly. Uptake of these seven nutrients by tomato was generally in the order GW ⩾ TW > HC ⩾ LC. GW irrigated plants had the highest concentration of P, Na and Fe which were 39–85% higher than the TW irrigated plants. Compared with tap water irrigated plants, greywater irrigated plants removed only 6% excess B, but substantially greater quantity of Na (83%) and Fe (86%). These results suggest that laundry greywater has a promising potential for reuse as irrigation water to grow tomato.

Fate of Surfactants in Soil after Graywater Application for Landscape Irrigation

Fate of Surfactants in Soil after Graywater Application for Landscape Irrigation

Vapour and liquid hydrophobic characteristics induced by presence of surfactants in an agricultural soil

Surfactants affect the water-related soil properties of water-repellent soils but may also affect those of wettable soils. The effect of five surfactants, belonging to three different types, at different concentrations on the hydrophobic behaviour of a nonrepellent agricultural calcareous soil is studied. Native soil was treated with anionic (Aerosol 22), cationic (TDTMA and HDTMA) and non-ionic surfactants (Triton X-100 and Tween 80) and vapour and liquid hydrophobic characteristics were evaluated. Anionic and non-ionic surfactants at any concentration increase water vapour adsorption but cationic ones reduce it when applied to soil above 50% soil cation exchange capacity. Absorption of liquid water is restricted for all soil treatments with proven changes in water penetration time and wetting contact angles. Surfactant interactions with the soil matrix are related with changes in organic carbon and cation exchange capacity of the soil. Derived apparent contact angles from an imbibition test provide a suitable discrimination of soil wettability using a simple and efficient method for a large number of trials using small soil samples.

Physical and Biological Treatment of Oil-Contaminated Soil in a Baffled Roller Bioreactor

ABSTRACT Physical and biological removal of diesel oil from contaminated soil was studied in a baffled roller bioreactor. Initially, the effects of four factors (soil loading, temperature, pH, and surfactant) on physical removal of diesel oil were investigated. Only the presence of a surfactant (sodium dodecyl sulfate [SDS]) demonstrated a significant effect on diesel oil removal. Diesel oil removal efficiency was increased from 32.0% to 63.9% in the presence of 100 mg/L SDS. Using a microbial culture enriched from contaminated soil, biological treatment of diesel oil polluted soil under different soil loadings (15% to 50%), different diesel oil concentrations (1 to 50 g/L), and different types of soil (sand, silt, and clay) was then investigated in the baffled roller bioreactor. Biodegradation consisted of both fast and slow stages for degradation of light and heavy compounds, respectively. All biodegradation experiments demonstrated significant decreases in diesel oil concentrations (88.3% in 14 days for initial diesel oil concentrations of 1000 mg/L and a wide range of soil loadings). The presence of silty or sandy soils enhanced the biodegradation rate compared to the control bioreactor (without soil). The sandy soil loading had no effect on the biodegradation results. Using the enriched culture, the baffled roller bioreactor was able to biodegrade high diesel concentrations (up to 50 g/L) with biodegradation rates of 112.2 and 39.3 mg/L· h during fast and slow stages, respectively.

Soil surfactant stops water repellency and preferential flow paths

AbstractThis study reports the effects of a soil surfactant on reduction and prevention of water repellency and preferential flow paths in a sandy soil of a golf course fairway, located at Bosch en Duin near Utrecht, the Netherlands. The golf course is constructed on inland dunes composed of fine sand with low organic matter content. The topsoil (0–25 cm) of the fairways exhibits an extremely water repellent behaviour resulting in the development of numerous localized dry spots during dry periods in spring and summer. The influence of surfactant treatments on the wetting of the soil was studied by measuring the volumetric water content with a hand‐held Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) device. Actual water repellency was assessed by placing water drops at regular distances on soil cores taken to a depth of 25 cm with a small (1.5 cm diameter) auger at intervals of 25 cm over a distance of 25 m across the untreated and treated parts of the fairway. Surfactant applications resulted in more homogeneous wetting of the soil profile and elimination of actual water repellency in the fairway soil. Treatments significantly increased water uptake and moisture levels of the soil and prevented the development of preferential flow paths. A visible improvement in turf quality and density was evident on the treated part of the fairway.

Surfactants in sludge-amended agricultural soils: a review

Surfactants are included in different detergent formulations and are one of the most ubiquitous and important families of organic compounds. The possible contamination of the environment by surfactants is due to their remarkable capacity to modify the surface tension of water and solubilize xenobiotic subtances. Detergents are a common component of domestic wastewater, which may be disposed in water bodies without treatment, with possible health risks through drinking water. Although the generic term “surfactants” is applied to a great number of products, 80% of their demand is covered by only 10 types of compounds. The global surfactant market volume size is more than 18 million tons per year. Large quantities of surfactants are continuously released to the environment, accumulating in sediments and soils, where they can or cannot be degraded depending on their structure. Linear alkylbenzenesulfonate (LAS) is the most widely used surfactant. LAS can be degraded under aerobic conditions, but is persistent in the environment under anaerobic conditions. Surfactants may enter the terrestrial environment through several routes, by far the most important being the use of sewage sludge as fertilizer on agricultural land. High concentrations of surfactants and their degradation products may affect the biota. On the other hand, due to their amphiphilic nature, surfactants may interact both with inorganic as well as organic contaminants affecting their bioavailability. Sections of this review article include: uses, types, and consumption of surfactants, analysis of surfactants in environmental matrices, surfactants in sludge-amended soils, biodegradation of surfactants, transport and fate of surfactants in wastewater treatment plants, fate of surfactants in waters and soils, and interaction of surfactants with soil contaminants.

Sorption characteristics of a non-ionic surfactant in soil contaminated with decane

Sorption characteristics of a non-ionic surfactant in soil contaminated with decane

P.2.c.003 All for one or one for all - assessing the true treatment effect of active vs placebo therapy in severe major depressive disorder

In this work, the degradation of anionic and non-ionic surfactants in agricultural soil amended with sewage sludge is reported. The compounds analysed were: linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (LAS) with a 10–13 carbon alkylic chain, and nonylphenolic compounds (NPE), including nonylphenol (NP) and nonylphenol ethoxylates with one and two ethoxy groups (NP1EO and NP2EO). The degradation studies were carried out under winter (12.7 °C) and summer (22.4 °C) conditions in Andalusia region. The concentration of LAS was reduced to 2% of the initial concentration 100 day after sludge-application to the soil. The half-life time measured for LAS homologues were ranged between 4 and 14 days at 12.7 °C and between 4 and 7 days at 22.4 °C.With regard to NPE compounds, after 8 and 4 days from the beginning of the experiment at 12.7 and 22.4 °C, respectively, their concentration levels were increased to 6.5 and 13.5 mg/kg dm (dry matter) as consequence of the degradation of nonylphenol polyethoxylates. These concentration levels were reduced to 5% after 63 and 70 days for 12.7 °C and 22.4 °C, respectively. The half-life times measured for NPEs were from 8 to 16 days at 12.7 °C and from 8 to 18 days at 22.4 °C.Environmental risk assessment revealed that for LAS homologues no environment risk could be expected after 7 and 8 days of sludge application to the soil for 22.4 and 12.7 °C, respectively; however, potential toxic effects could be observed for the nonylphenolic compounds during the first 56 days after sludge application to the soil.

Use of a Soil Surfactant with Fungicides for Control of Fairy Ring Disease in Turfgrass

Abstract Fairy ring is the common name for a complex disease of turf encompassing the appearance of mushrooms, circles of stimulated grass, or rings of damaged or dead turfgrass maintained for lawns, athletic fields, or golf courses. Type-I fairy ring is especially destructive due to the development of water repellent or hydrophobic soil conditions and the subsequent decline and damage to the existing turfgrass. Fairy ring management strategies, particularly the control or suppression of Type-I fairy ring symptoms, has been inconsistent in effectiveness. The objective of this field study was to evaluate the efficacy of fungicides recommended for fairy ring control when applied alone and with a soil surfactant. This research was conducted on cool-season turfgrass in California in 2005, and in Pennsylvania in 2006. The same treatments were applied at both locations. The four fungicide treatments were evaluated at 620 g active ingredient (a.i.) azoxystrobin∙ha-1, 9757 g a.i. flutolanil∙ha-1, 310 g a.i polyoxin-D∙ha-1, or 558 g a.i. pyraclostrobin∙ha-1. Each fungicide was applied alone and in a tank-mix combination with the modified alkylated polyol soil surfactant (100 % concentration) at 19 L product∙ha-1. All treatments were applied at two water carrier volumes of 814 and 1628∙ L∙ha-1. At both locations, Type-I fairy ring symptoms were noticeably reduced in plots treated with fungicides plus soil surfactant at either water carrier volume versus plots treated with fungicides alone applied at 814 L water carrier ha-1. Therefore, the consistently best overall treatment for the control or suppression of Type-I fairy ring symptoms was fungicides plus soil surfactant at either water carrier volume. The application of plant protection products at the lower water volume is preferred by turfgrass managers and practitioners; thus the utility of soil surfactants applied with fungicides is a useful strategy for the chemical control of fairy ring in turf.

Quantitative determination of octylphenol, nonylphenol, alkylphenol ethoxylates and alcohol ethoxylates by pressurized liquid extraction and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry in soils treated with sewage sludges

Surfactants have one of the highest production rates of all organic chemicals. Non-ionic surfactants, especially alkylphenol ethoxylates, received most attention as precursors of estrogenic metabolic products generated during wastewater treatment. Alkylphenols (octyl and nonylphenol), alkylphenol polyethoxylates (APEOs), and alcohol ethoxylates (AEOs) have been determined in a Mediterranean forest soil (Mediterranean Rendzic Leptosol) amended with sludges from six waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) located in the Valencian Community. These compounds were isolated from soil by pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) using a mixture acetone-hexane (50:50 v/v), the extracts were cleaned up by solid-phase extraction (SPE) with C(18), and determined by liquid chromatography atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-APCI-MS) using analytical standards for quantification. The method enabled high-reliable identification by monitoring the corresponding ammonium adduct [M+NH(3)](+) for AEOs and APEOs, and the deprotonated molecule [M-H](-) for octyl and nonylphenol. Recoveries, determined spiking soil samples at different concentrations, ranged from 89 to 94%, with limits of quantification from 1 to 100 microg kg(-1). Data obtained from a soil sample mixed with biosolids in the laboratory showed that these compounds are present at concentrations ranging from 0.02 to 5 mg kg(-1). According to these concentrations, levels of possible risk can be concluded for the presence of non-ionic surfactants in soil. However, further assessment will be necessary to establish the relationship between exposure and effect findings.

Column study of the leaching and degradation of anionic surfactants in oil-polluted soil; 87–97

The study was carried out with coarse-grained and fine sandy oil-polluted soils in column tests and the soil was treated with the bioremediation agent SR-100. The concentrations of the hydrocarbons and anionic surfactants were determined in the fractions of soil from the column. In the experiments with the coarse-grained soil the highest concentration of residual surfactants (up to 122 mg/kg) was found in the column with unpolluted soil. The distribution of the residual surfactants was even for the fine sandy soil sample s and it was slightly higher for the mixture of polluted soil and CaCO3. The results indicated degradation of surfactants in the polluted soil but the degradation did not completely remove the surfactants and leaching from soil was observed.

Development and efficacy of a new soil surfactant

Development and efficacy of a new soil surfactant

Adsorption of anionic and nonionic surfactant mixtures from synthetic detergents on soils

Adsorption of anionic surfactant (sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, SDBS) and nonionic surfactant (an alcohol ethoxylates with 12 carbons and 9 oxyethyl groups, A 12E 9) mixtures, widely used as the major constituents of synthetic detergents in China and become the most common pollutants in the environment, on soils was conducted to investigate the behavior of mixed surfactants in soils. The effects of addition order and mixing ratios of two surfactants, associated with pH and ion strength in solutions, on adsorptions were considered. The results show that saturated adsorption amount of SDBS and A 12E 9 on soils decreased respectively when A 12E 9 was added into soils firstly compared with that secondly, possibly resulting from the screening of A 12E 9 to part adsorption sites on soils and the hydrocarbon chain–chain interactions between SDBS and A 12E 9. The adsorption of SDBS and A 12E 9 on soils was enhanced each other at pre-plateau region of isotherms. At plateau region of isotherms, the adsorption of SDBS on soils decreased with the increase of molar fraction of A 12E 9 in mixed surfactant solutions, while that of A 12E 9 increased except the molar ratio of SDBS to A 12E 9 0.0:1.0. With the increase of pH in mixed surfactant solutions, adsorption amount of SDBS and A 12E 9 on soils decreased, respectively. The reduction of ion strength in soils resulted in the decrease of adsorption amount of SDBS and A 12E 9 on soils, respectively.

Effects of surfactants originating from reuse of greywater on capillary rise in the soil

Greywater is all domestic wastewater excluding toilet effluents. Detergents contain surfactants, which account for the highest concentration of organic chemicals in average domestic wastewater. Accumulation of surfactants in greywater-irrigated soils was determined in three household gardens. The effect of surfactants on capillary rise in loess and sand was then tested in the range of concentrations found in the garden soils. The capillary rise of freshwater in sieved oven-dried soil mixed with different concentrations of laundry detergent solution (10% w/w moisture content) was determined. In a second setup, the soil was mixed with freshwater and the rising solution contained different concentrations of detergent solution. The introduction of laundry solution to the soils caused a significant decrease in the capillary rise over the range of concentrations that is found in greywater-irrigated soils. The effect was more noticeable in the sand than in the loess. Interestingly, in the second setup, the capillary rise of the laundry solutions in the sand was almost similar to that of freshwater, whereas in the loess the capillary rise was significantly reduced. It is suggested that accumulation of surfactants in the soil might form water repellent soils that have a significant effect on agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability.

Use of High-pressure Injection to Alleviate Type-I Fairy Ring Symptoms in Turfgrass

Fairy ring is a common and troublesome disease of turfgrasses maintained on golf course putting greens. Type-I fairy ring is especially destructive due to the development of hydrophobic conditions in the thatch and root zone, thus contributing to turfgrass injury and loss. The objective of this 2-year field study was to evaluate the application and novel delivery method of two fungicides and a soil surfactant for curative control of type-I fairy ring in a 20-year-old creeping bentgrass [Agrostis palustris (synonym A. stolonifera)] putting green. In both years, all treatments were applied twice on a 28-day interval. In 1998, flutolanil and azoxystrobin fungicides were applied alone and in combination with Primer soil surfactant by a conventional topical spray method, and fungicides without Primer applied via high-pressure injection (HPI). Acceptable type-I fairy ring control was observed in plots treated with flutolanil plus Primer, HPI flutolanil, azoxystrobin alone, azoxystrobin plus Primer, or HPI azoxystrobin. In 1999, treatments were HPI flutolanil, HPI flutolanil plus Primer, HPI azoxystrobin, HPI water only, and aeration only. Acceptable type-I fairy ring control was observed in plots treated with HPI flutolanil plus Primer or HPI azoxystrobin. HPI of fungicides alone or in combination with a soil surfactant may be a viable option for alleviating type-I fairy ring symptoms on golf course putting greens.

Analysis and fate of surfactants in sludge and sludge-amended soils

Surfactants are among the most prevalent organic pollutants of anthropogenic origin with the potential to enter the environment through the discharge of wastewater and sewage sludge. We give an overview of analytical methods currently in use for the determination of different classes of surfactants in sewage sludge and soil. The main focus is on the application of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), discussing various aspects of these two techniques, including sample preparation. We give an overview of data on the occurrence of sludge and sludge-amended soils, and we draw conclusions about the fate of surfactants and their metabolites in sludge-amended soils. Finally, we briefly discuss the current European legislation relating to the use of sludge in agriculture.

Effects of Soil Fines and Surfactant Sorption on Contaminant Reduction of Coarse Fractions During Soil Washing

The reduction of contaminants sorbed on the coarse fraction of soils to the level below clean-up requirements is essential for an effective soil washing process. This study investigated the effects of soil texture and surfactant sorption on the reduction of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) in coarse fraction during soil washing. Batch TPH sorption experiments were conducted on soil slurry with various soil fine/coarse ratios and surfactants Octylpheny polyoxyethylene (TX-100) and Dodecylpyridinium chloride (DPC) at the dosage below their saturation levels of sorption. In a sandy loam soil of low silt and clay contents, increasing the fine/coarse ratio from 0.4 to 1.2 without adding surfactants resulted in a reduction of TPH levels in the coarse fraction by 30%. Increasing the fine/coarse ratio along with sorbed surfactant (3000 mg TX-100 or 10,000 mg DPC per kg soil) further reduced TPH concentrations in the coarse fraction. For a silty loam soil already containing a high percentage of fine particles, increasing the fine/coarse ratio from 5.9 to 18.8 without surfactant addition yielded no further TPH reduction in the coarse fraction. On the other hand, surfactant sorption at the fine/coarse ratio of 5.9 improved the washing efficiency of the coarse fraction. These experimental results suggested the importance of high contents of soil fines and surfactant sorption in achieving low contaminant concentrations of coarse fractions during soil washing.

Ecotoxicity monitoring of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil using earthworm (Eisenia foetida).

In order to assess the applicability of an earthworm bioassay as a technique for monitoring the soil flushing process, short-term and long-term toxicity tests were conducted on remediated soil using various pore volumes of surfactant solution. Results obtained on short-term toxicity testing indicated that biomass increased as the soil flushing proceeded, and on diesel-contaminated soils this testing showed that the effect of diesel is lethal and that 25 pore volumes of soil surfactant were not sufficient to abrogate the toxic effect of diesel. These short-term tests also showed strong sublethal relationships between the development of biomass, and the concentrations of toxic chemicals in the soil. Although relationships between contaminants and the various bioassay parameters examined were not significant in long-term testing, an increase in the number of juveniles was observed over time, which may have been a consequence of a reduction in toxicity associated with the flushing process.

013 Investigations of Curative and Peventive Control Strategies for Fairy Ring Disease in Turfgrass

Fairy ring has become a troublesome and persistent disease on golf course putting greens and other turf areas in most regions of the United States. Many basidiomycete fungi are associated with this destructive disease in turfgrass. Recent widespread epidemics of fairy ring have led investigators to examine possible management and control options. Curative approaches include topical flutolanil fungicide applications in conjunction with soil surfactants, the application of flutolanil under high-pressure injection, and the use of nitrogen fertility programs. These curative programs were effective at suppressing visual symptoms and turfgrass injury. A preventive approach evaluated repeat applications of flutolanil plus a soil surfactant prior to disease development. This preventive program was effective at eliminating visual disease symptoms on bermudagrass putting greens. Information presented will review results from field research studies conducted over the past 3 years in Florida, North Carolina, Ohio, Texas, and Virginia.

Surfactants in sludge-amended soil

Surfactants in sludge-amended soil