Surface Watering Research Articles

ArduHydro: a low-cost device for water level measurement and monitoring

In this paper, we present ArduHydro, a low-cost device for water level measurement and monitoring designed for employment in controlled and outdoor environments. It measures the water level through an ultrasonic sensor and elaborates the signals through an Arduino microcontroller. The small size of this device, its robustness and accuracy make ArduHydro properly versatile for different applications in the field of water control and management. This article describes the design, the components, the costs, and the performance of ArduHydro. The performance was assessed with a laboratory test inside an open-channel flume and comparing ArduHydro measurements with those obtained with a traditional ultrasonic sensor. Furthermore, an example of ArduHydro application for detecting the wavefront evolution during surface irrigation of a maize crop is presented. The results revealed that ArduHydro measurements were, on average, very consistent with those obtained by the traditional ultrasonic sensor in all different flow conditions. The application of ArduHydro during a surface watering of an agricultural field allowed us to obtain important spatiotemporal information about the water depth along the longitudinal direction of the field, paying the way for a real comprehension of the dynamics of wavefront evolution in a real-world case study.

Glasshouse study of a sprayable, degradable polymer to reduce water use in cotton establishment

This glasshouse pot experiment demonstrated that a new sprayable and degradable polymer reduced soil water evaporation and promoted cotton seedling emergence and establishment. The polymer was tested on two contrasting soils (sandy loam and clay), representative of those used to grow cotton in Australia. Changes in soil water content in non-treated and polymer-treated pots were monitored over 80 days, after surface or subsurface watering. Plant biomass, soil water content and soil chemical properties were determined at harvest. The polymer reduced soil water evaporation by up to 35% in sandy loam and up to 20% in clay, did not compromise seedling emergence and improved plant growth per unit water applied by up to 26.2%. The polymer underwent extensive degradation after 80 days to produce low molecular-weight polymers or oligomers and water-extractable silicon species that may have implications for plant nutrition.

Particulate emission rates for open surfaces in Australian open cut black coal mines

Accurate estimation of particulate emissions is fundamental to assessing the air quality risks posed by existing and proposed open cut black coal mines. The currently available emission estimation techniques are based on a limited range of empirical studies, and the need for additional research and development of activity and region specific particulate emission estimation methods has been recognised. This paper presents the results of empirical testing of particulate emission rates for open area surfaces in open cut black coal mines in three Australian regions. The emission rates are provided for specific wind speeds, thus allowing adjustment of emission rates for prevailing meteorology in these regions. The influence of surface watering as a control technique is also considered. Particulate emission rates are presented for a range of coal mining sources, and for specific wind speeds. Comparison of the emission rates with the existing published research confirms the emission rates are consistent with current approaches. This research significantly expands our current understanding by presenting emission rates for a range of open area sources, for specific wind speeds and surface watering controls. This more detailed emission estimation dataset provides for adjustments to default particulate emission rates to allow site specific data to be integrated into emissions estimation. This will result in more accurate emissions estimates for existing and future projects and reduce the potential for significant over- or under-estimation of particulate emissions from surface sources in open cut coal mines.

Subsurface watering resulted in reduced soil N2O and CO2 emissions and their global warming potentials than surface watering

Water management is an important practice with significant effect on greenhouse gases (GHG) emission from soils. Nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and their global warming potentials (GWPs) from subsurface watering soil (SUW) were investigated, with surface watering (SW) as a control. Results indicated that the N2O and CO2 emissions from SUW soils were somewhat different to those from SW soil, with the peak N2O and CO2 fluxes from SUW soil reduced by 28.9% and 19.4%, and appeared 72 h and 168 h later compared with SW. The fluxes of N2O and CO2 from SUW soils were lower than those from SW soil in both pulse and post-pulse periods, and the reduction was significantly (p<0.05) in pulse period. Compare to SW, the cumulative N2O and CO2 emissions and its integrative GWPs from SUW soil decreased by 21.0% (p<0.05), 15.9% and 18.0%, respectively. The contributions of N2O to GWPs were lower than those of CO2 during most of time, except in pulse emission periods, and the proportion of N2O from SUW soil was 1.4% (p>0.1) lower that from SW soil. Moreover, N2O and CO2 fluxes from both watering treatments increased exponentially with increase of soil water-filled pore space (WFPS) and temperature. Our results suggest that watering soil from subsurface could significantly reduce the integrative greenhouse effect caused by N2O and CO2 and is a promising strategy for soil greenhouse gases (GHGs) mitigation. And the pulse period, contributed most to the reduction in emissions of N2O and CO2 from soils between SW and SUW, should be a key period for mitigating GHGs emissions. Response of N2O and CO2 emissions to soil WFPS and temperature illustrated that moisture was the dominant parameters that triggering GHG pulse emissions (especially for N2O), and temperature had a greater effect on the soil microorganism activity than moisture in drier soil. Avoiding moisture and temperature are appropriate for GHG emission at the same time is essential for GHGs mitigation, because peak N2O and CO2 emission were observed only when moisture and temperature are both appropriate.

Can raingardens produce food and retain stormwater? Effects of substrates and stormwater application method on plant water use, stormwater retention and yield

Raingardens capture and filter urban stormwater using sandy soils and drought-tolerant plants. An emerging question is whether raingardens can also be used as vegetable gardens, potentially increasing their popularity and implementation. A successful vegetable raingarden will need to both retain stormwater and produce vegetables, despite potential water deficits between rainfall events. To determine whether raingardens can provide this dual functionality, we undertook a greenhouse pot experiment using two different substrates (loamy sand raingarden substrate and potting mix typical of containerised vegetable growing) and two methods of stormwater application (‘sub-surface’ and ‘surface’ watering) with the water quantity at each application determined by average Melbourne summer rainfall. Overall, potting mix produced bigger plants (biomass and leaf area) and greater yield than did the loamy sand. Yield effects were variable: tomato yield was unaffected by treatment, bean yield was greatest in potting mix, beetroot yield was greatest with sub-surface watering and parsley yield was greatest with surface watering. Bigger plants also had greater transpiration, which meant that stormwater retention was greatest for parsley and tomato plants growing in potting mix with surface watering. Although, a raingarden with potting mix and surface application of stormwater was optimal for producing food and retaining stormwater under our rainfall regime, potting mix could be problematic due to higher nutrient leaching and breakdown over time. Therefore, we recommend using a mix of loamy sand and potting mix. However, the choice of substrate and watering treatment require trade-offs between yield, stormwater retention and potential implications for water quality and long-term stability of hydraulic properties.

Diurnal pattern of nitrous oxide emissions from soils under different vertical moisture distribution conditions

The diurnal pattern of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions is essential in understanding how weather and soil conditions influence the daily mean estimate of N2O fluxes. Incubation experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of vertical soil moisture distribution patterns on diurnal variation of N2O emissions. Clear diurnal patterns of N2O emissions on both surface watering (SW) and subsurface watering (SUW) treatments (SUW12, SUW15, and SUW18) were detected from soil sample (I), silty clay, and soil sample (II), sandy loam, where peak N2O fluxes usually occurred between 12:00 and 18:00 h. Different vertical watering patterns resulted in changes in the daily range of N2O fluxes and peak time. Mean fluxes from the SUW12, SUW15, and SUW18 treatments were 37.4%, 32.7%, and 43.3% lower than those from SW treatments from soil sample I, and 32.0%, 40.3%, and 41.1% from soil sample II. Moisture distribution patterns under SUW soils could be effective to mitigate N2O emissions. The N2O emissions from soil sample I ranged from178.3 to 2741.0 μg N2O m-2 h-1, which was more than in soil sample II with 7.0 to 83.7 μg N2O m-2 h-1. The different soil texture and N content level might account for the differences in magnitude of N2O fluxes from soils. The optimal soil moisture condition for peak N2O fluxes in the SW treatment had relatively narrower ranges than the SUW treatments with 46% to 60% water-filled pore space (WFPS) for soil sample I and 26% to 34% WFPS for soil sample II even though surface soil moisture for peak N2O fluxes were somewhat different from the previously reported optimal soil moisture range of 45% to 75% WFPS.

Factors associated with dust dispersed in the air of indoor riding arenas.

Environmental factors contribute to respiratory diseases in horses and man. During exercise, equine ventilation is increased, potentially increasing exposure of the airways to inhaled particulates. Currently, there is very little information on the quality of air in riding arenas. To evaluate air quality and dust particle concentrations in indoor riding arenas before and after use for riding. Longitudinal study. Air quality was assessed in 4 indoor riding arenas in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany on a monthly basis for 1 year. Concentrations of particles in 6 particle fractions from 0.3 to 5.0 μm were measured in air collected at 4 points in the riding arenas approximately at the height of the horses' (1.5 m) and riders' noses (2.5 m), before and after the arenas were used by one horse performing standardised riding session. There were significant differences in the numbers of particles between the arenas within months and between months within the arenas. Particle numbers were significantly influenced by the month and activities in the arenas before and after riding. The effect of the month on differences in the dust concentration may relate to surface watering. A significant increase in numbers of particles was observed after the riding session. Significant interactions were found between measuring heights and month within arena (P<0.01) and there was an interaction between measuring height and time points (before and after riding, P = 0.02). The amount of dust dispersed in the air increases during riding in indoor arenas and this appears to be influenced by footing material, direct connections between the arena and stables and season, possibly reflecting surface watering practices.

Influence of Watering Methods on the Short-Term Pulse Emissions of Nitrous Oxide from Disturbed Horticultural Soil

To reveal the impact of soil disturbance and surface watering (SW) following soil disturbance on the pulse nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, incubated experiments were conducted on disturbed soil with two watering regimes [surface watering only (SWO) and subsurface watering followed by surface watering (SUW+SW)]. Intensive soil disturbance led to pulses N2O emissions from SUW + SW soil (>8,693 μg N2O m−2 h−1 with a peak of 30,938 μg N2O m−2 h−1), although the water-filled pore space (WFPS) was substantially lower than the previously reported optimal soil moisture range (45–75% WFPS) for peak N2O emissions. N2O emissions from the disturbed soil after SW were much lower than those from SUW + SW soil, increased as the soil dried, and peaked when the WFPS fell within the optimal soil moisture range. These peaks were considerably less than those resulting from the intensive disturbance in SUW + SW soil. Thus, SW after intensive soil disturbance may be effective for mitigating of pulse N2O emissions caused by soil disturbance.

Water-saving technologies and irrigation facilities

The effectiveness of water resource use in agriculture under the current conditions of economic development in Kazakhstan is quite low because of aged irrigation techniques and technologies, as well as significant costs for water transportation. To achieve water saving in agriculture, the introduction of up-to-date irrigation techniques and water-saving technologies is required, as well as reductions in water losses in transport and other measures to increase water use productivity as water supply deficits increase. The technologies of impulse and mist irrigation, and surface watering, and technical facilities for their implementation are aimed at increasing the productivity of irrigation water use and establishing optimal conditions for plant development.

Influence of Scaling in Alkaline/Surfactant/Polymer Flooding Surface Process

With the Alkaline-surfactant-polymer (ASP) flooding production processs developing, deposition and scaling problems are serious in ground watering and gathering system, pronounced at watering pipeline and heating furnace. So challenges must be faced with in oilfield development process, such as energy consumption increase, equipments and pipelines are damaged easily, and equipments service life shortens. The component of scale sample, which is took from ASP flooding area of Xingbei Oilfield in Daqing Oilfield, in surface watering system is investigated. The influence factors and regulation of scaling in watering system are studied by simulation experiments. It turned out that the scale sample is consists of silica scale, carbonate scale, corrosion scale and organic substance, and the silica scale is the main scale, which content is more than 45%. The watering temperature, flow rate and polymer concentration are main factors of influencing scaling in watering system. Under the conditions of ASP flooding normal production, the effect of polymer concentration is prominent.

MULTI-PURPOSE URBAN ROAD CONSTRUCTION WITH PREFABRICATED CONCRTE PLATE

In this study, the construction was to bring a new system and protection of underground and surface water, natural gas, watering, electricity cables and phone lines on roads and streets. The study was used to place a prestressed prefabricated plate with a cross-section in a 30o angle on a reinforced concrete structure. After the researches which have been carried out, it has been found out that such a system was useable, could achieve the desired target, would be more echonomic with referenced to conventional system compared to liftime but needs more detailed researches for prestressed prefabricated elemental production.

Control of Particle Re-Entrainment by Wetting the Exposed Surface of Dust Samples

Experiments have been conducted in a wind tunnel to measure the emission factor of re-entrained particles from a dry or wetted dust sample with a smooth or rough surface. Effects of wind velocities and water contents in the sample on the emission factor also were investigated. The results show that re-entrainment of particles can be controlled efficiently in a certain period of time when the surface watering density is between 60 and 80 g/m2 at a wind velocity from 7 to 15 m/sec for both smooth and rough surfaces. After the effective period is elapsed, which depends on wind speeds and environmental conditions, water will eventually evaporate, and re-entrainment starts to occur again. The experimental water evaporation rates at different wind speeds are in good agreement with theoretical values. After watering for 210, 130, and 110 min at average wind velocities of 0, 2, and 4 m/sec, respectively, the dust sample must be replenished with water to avoid dust re-entrainment.

Alternate watering in soil vertical profile improved water use efficiency of maize ( Zea mays)

A new method of irrigation was designed and tested for its biomass production and water use efficiency (WUE) in pot-grown maize. Maize plants were grown in pots with their roots vertically separated into two parts. A 5 cm layer of stone chips (diameter 3–6 mm) was used to separate the upper and lower parts so that capillary movement of water between the two parts was prevented without restricting root penetration. Watering and soil drying could be applied independently on either part of the soil column. Results showed that when water consumption was reduced by 20% (moderate soil drying) and 40% (severe soil drying) through extending the watering intervals, the alternate watering (AW), or drying, on either part of the soil column largely maintained its biomass production under moderate soil drying. In addition, AW outperformed bottom watering (BW) or surface watering (SW) in biomass production when the same amount water was consumed. Root development, as both root length and dried mass, was significantly enhanced. Significant increases in WUE and root to shoot ratio were observed as a result of the AW treatment. Rate of photosynthesis of AW under moderate or severe soil drying was enhanced when compared to BW or SW under similar soil drying treatments. The results also showed that total nutrient uptake, the K and N, and shoot biomass production were enhanced by alternate drying and rewatering in two parts in the vertical soil profile. We conclude that controlled AW in the vertical soil profile is an effective and water-saving method and may have potential to be used in the field.

Modelizacion matemática de la hidroquímica de las aguas de un macizo dolomítico-yesífero. Aplicación a la génesis de los travertinos de las Lagunas de Ruidera

Thermodinamic equations of solution and precipitation carbonates-calcium sulfates let us stablish a mathematical model of calcareous tufa deposits simulation. The conceptual genetic model of calcareous tufa is related with solution of preexisting carbonates in high CO 2 , presure ground-water. When ground-water reach surface, the fast degassing processes lead to calcite precipitation. Ground-water are considered placed in two different types of acuifer system: dolomitic aquifer (D) and dolomitic-gypsiferous acuifer (DY). Calcium activity in ground-water (a S ) may be expressed by the relation: a s =10 p1 ∙ (pCO 2 ) p2 ∙ (T s ) p3 where, pCO 2 is partiel pressure of CO 2 in equilibrium with ground-water, and T s , is absolute temperature of ground-water. Values of p 1 , p 2 and p 3 , constant are, in the case ofa dolomitic aquicer: p 1 = 6,71624 p 2 = 0,32933 p 3 = 3,64469 However values of p 1 , p 2 and p 3 constants in dolomitic-gypsiferous aquifer are: p 1 = 3,29381 p 2 = O,03392 p 3 = -0,40223 In the same way we may calculate the end calcium activity in surface watering (a f ) after degassing CO 2 in equilibrium with a rural atmosphere (pCO 2 =10 -3,503 atm). Urban and urban industrial areas may reach pC0 2 = 10 -3 atm. The rate of precipitation of calcareous tues (Tons per year) may writte: [[(V t ∙ a B / (V I - S L (e L - p L ))] – a t ] ∙ (V I - S L (e L - p L )) ∙ 10 5 V I =water infiltration in the basin (Hm 3 /year), s L =marsh and/or lake surface (Km 2 ), e L =evaporation rate (m/year), P L =precipitation rate (m/year). This equation let us also stablish, the influence on calcareous tufs sedimentation of basinal, climatological and environmental parameters. Their use may focus to conservation of many present day damaged travertine systems.

Influence of fungal-soil water interactions on phytophthora root rot of alfalfa

Phytophthora root rot of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a serious problem in wet soils. This disease is caused by Phytophthora megasperma f. sp. medicaginis. The influence of soil-water interactions with P. megasperma f. sp. medicaginis and other factors on the severity of phytophthora root rot of mature alfalfa plants (10–12 weeks) was studied in greenhouse experiments. Severe and reproducible root rot was produced by subsurface (3–4 cm) placement of mycelial suspension. Soil saturation 3 days prior to inoculation followed by alternating 3-day wet (soil saturation) and 4-day dry (surface watering once a day) moisture regimes (for 30–40 days following inoculation) resulted in severe root damage.

Influence of soil moisture on isoproturon activity against Alopecurus myosuroides

Summary Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. (blackgrass) in sandy loam soil in pots was treated at the three‐leaf stage with formulated isoproturon. Damage to plants resulted mainly from herbicide entry via the soil. When the soil moisture levels were maintained close to 50, 100 and 150% of field capacity (FC) throughout the experiment damage increased with the amount of water in the soil. After spraying plants raised at field capacity, change to 150 or 50% FC resulted in more and less damage respectively. Water applied to the soil surface compared with sub‐irrigation caused more damage. A delay of up to 21 days between spraying plants in soil at field capacity and surface watering did not reduce damage provided the time interval between the onset of surface watering and assessment remained constant. A delay of 7 days between spraying isoproturon onto plants in dry soil (50% FC) and increasing the moisture to field capacity by surface watering decreased the damage to A. myosuroides. These results are discussed with reference to the soil moisture distribution in soil columns and rainfall patterns under field conditions.

Temperature regime of the concrete dam of the Kurpsai hydroelectric station during the construction period

1. The temperature regime of the dam meets the design and technical requirements imposed on concreting operations. 2. Two characteristic zones of the temperature state of the concrete are noted in the Kurpsai dam: a central zone where the temperature stays at the level +23–24.5° and is slowly decreasing at a rate of 1–1.5°/yr; an outside zone of the dam at a depth of 6–7 m where the temperature regime depends on seasonal variations of the air temperature. 3. Surface watering is an effective means of reducing the temperature of the concrete at an early stage of its hardening.

Greenhouse Benches and Pots Designed to Facilitate Subirrigation

Greenhouse benches and pots were specially designed to facilitate herbicide research on plants. Four 0.8-cm risers were added to the bottom of polyethylene pots to improve drainage after subirrigation or surface watering. A rule die was made to punch out paper discs needed to cover the holes in the bottom of the pots to prevent soil loss during watering or drainage. Flat, level greenhouse tables with a 3-cm hinged side around the edges, were covered with 2-mm polyethylene sheeting to facilitate water retention when the side was in the up position during subirrigation and subsequent drainage of water when the side was down. Much time was saved and the soil was watered more uniformly by this system. Economics dictated discarding pots after herbicide experiments rather than incurring the expense of washing them and risking contamination of subsequent experiments.

Corn and Soybean Response to Allelopathic Effects of Weed and Crop Residues1

AbstractMany crop plants and perennial weed species have been known for their allelopathic effects. The question of whether annual weed species can be allelopathic remains unanswered. Consequently, studies were conducted in laboratory, greenhouse, and in the field to determine the allelopathic potential of weed and crop residues (above ground biomass) on corn (Zea mays L.) and soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Water extracts of dried residues of common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.), redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), fall panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx.), giant foxtail (Setaria faberi Herrm.), green foxtail [Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv.], and yellow foxtail [Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.] inhibited radicle elongation in corn; whereas, only common lambsquarters extract reduced coleoptile growth. Redroot pigweed, fall panicum, and green foxtail extracts inhibited hypocotyl elongation in soybeans. Residues of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia L.), velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medic.), and barnyardgrass [Echinochloa crus‐galli (L.) Beauv.] as well as the above species inhibited corn and soybean growth in the greenhouse. Inhibition of the receiver species (corn and soybeans) was greater with the double‐pot watering method than subsurface and surface watering methods. Corn was inhibited most in silica sand, less in a silica sand and silt loam mixture (Typic Agriudoll fine, silty, mixed mesic), and least in silt loam soil under each method of watering. In the field, residues of barnyardgrass and giant foxtail reduced corn yield. Soybean yield reductions occurred ranging from 14 to 19% with common lambsquarters, redroot pigweed, velvetleaf, soybeans, and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) residues. Corn and giant foxtail residues enhanced soybean yield in the field. These results demonstrate the allelopathic potential of the residues and suggest that these residues may affect crop yields due to the inhibitory or stimulatory effects of allelochemicals present in the residues.

Effects of initial watering on nodulation of lupins

The need for free water movement through the soil after sowing to obtain good nodulation of yellow lupins (Lupinus luteus) was verified in a glasshouse experiment. Withholding overhead watering after sowing reduced the number of plants nodulated by approximately 30% when compared with surface watering at either one or 3 days after sowing. The amount of nodule tissue of nodulated plants was also lowered. Lime pelleting or a higher rate of inoculation increased the number of plants nodulated, but did not increase the amount of nodule tissue on nodulated plants. With watering 3 days after sowing, fewer plants nodulated and they had less nodule tissue than with watering after one day, unless lime-pelleted seed was used or (in the case of number of plants nodulated) a higher rate of inoculum was used.