Cladding Surface Research Articles

An investigation on SWAAT and electrochemical corrosion behaviour of roll-bonded and brazed aluminium alloy - AA4045/AA3003

The formation of Mn/Fe-containing precipitates during a high-temperature treatment known as homogenization is important for the downstream performance of AA3xxx aluminium alloys. There is currently a significant scientific and industrial interest in the use of Al-Si-Mn-Fe sheet alloys in automotive applications to reduce the weight of vehicles. This work is concerned with the precipitation of dispersoids, which occurs over several hours during heating and holding at the homogenization temperature. In this study, therefore, the effects of isothermal soaking time on the microstructure of AA3003 cladded with AA-045 alloy were investigated. The microstructures and intermetallic phases were analysed using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The seawater acetic acid test (SWAAT) and electrochemical corrosion test were used for studying the corrosion behaviour of the AA4045/AA3003 cladded alloy. The results on the effect of soaking time on both microstructure and corrosion properties of the brazed alloy are presented. The OM results show that the microstructure of these alloys consisted of an Al-Si eutectic phase at the surface of the residual clad and a thick diffusion zone which is a band of dense precipitates ( BDP) between the clad and core. The sheet surface reveals the presence of pitting corrosion on the coupons exposed for 30 days and more. The polarization curves of the corrosion tests show that the AA4045/3003 is susceptible to intergranular corrosion (IGC) as a consequence of the higher amount of grain boundary precipitates formed during the brazing process.

STRUCTURAL-PHASE STATE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF A TITANIUM MATRIX COMPOSITE BASED ON TI64 ALLOY AND TIB2 CERAMICS OBTAINED BY LASER CLADDING

The paper presents experimental studies on the synthesis of a titanium matrix composite based on Ti64 titanium alloy and TiB2 ceramic particles by laser surface cladding. The weight percentage of TiB2 ceramics in the composite was 5, 10, and 15%. The phase composition of the resulting materials was analyzed by standard X-ray diffraction and synchrotron X-ray diffraction. It was found that the structure of the titanium matrix composite with 5 wt % ceramics consists of TiB nanowhiskers, and that of samples with higher ceramics content exhibits TiB whiskers with a width of several micrometers. The addition of TiB2 ceramics leads to an increase in Young’s modulus and nano-/microhardness of composite samples compared to Ti64 alloy. The indentation method was used to study the formation of a phase that does not correspond to TiB2 ceramics and microscale TiB whiskers and has elastic properties exceeding the elastic properties of the original Ti64 matrix phase. Analytical predictions showed an increase in the effective elastic properties of the formed heterogeneous material with the predicted new phase. It was also found that a lower friction coefficient can be achieved by forming a structure with nanowhiskers, while higher Young’s modulus and microhardness can be obtained by forming a structure with microwhiskers.

Investigation of the oxidation behavior of Zircaloy-4 cladding in a mixture of air and steam

Previous studies had shown that in certain conditions, the rate of oxidation of zirconium (Zr) based alloy fuel cladding is higher in air–steam mixtures than in dry air. In severe accidents in the spent fuel pool and in other air ingress accidents in nuclear power plants, the cladding is likely to be oxidized in an air–steam mixture, which makes it crucial to have an in-depth understanding of the nature of oxidation and its kinetics in that environment. Oxidation tests were conducted at 800 °C on Zircaloy-4 specimens in a mix of (air + steam) with various component ratios. Oxidation kinetics, details of the oxide layer, and hydrogen pick-up in the specimen were studied to investigate the mechanism of oxidation in each of these sets of conditions. Zirconium nitride precipitation in the oxide layer during the initial stages of the pre-breakaway oxidation stage and the widespread porous oxide growth on the cladding surface in the latter post-BA oxidation stage are related to the oxidation mechanism in the air–steam mixture. The differences in the mechanism of oxidation of the cladding in dry air and air–steam mixtures are discussed based on the experimental results.

Study on the integrity of prolonged steam oxidized clad column quenched at various reflood rates

An unmitigated loss of coolant flow accident degrades the decay heat removal from the reactor core. Because of this situation, the temperature of the clad column escalates. The steam surrounding the cladding causes an exothermic oxidation reaction between the cladding surface and steam at elevated temperatures typically above 700 °C. Under such a scenario, the fire fighting water injects into the core to reduce the accident severity and arrest the clad temperature escalation. Usually, violent heat exchanges happen between the clad column and cold water during the late reflood quenching event. Furthermore, the expansion and subsequent shrinkage of the clad column could be structurally constrained. Thus, the oxidized clad column may be exposed to unchecked thermal shock during the reflood quenching of a severely heated core, causing clad failure or fracture.In this study, a 2x2 square lattice arrangement of the zircaloy-4 cluster is selected for the experiment. This is to study the quenching behaviour of the cluster prolonged heated (1150⁰ C- 1250⁰C) clad column in steam media, simulating late phase injection of DEC-A scenario. The bottom reflooding is carried out at flow rates between 3 and 10 L per minute, typical to a light water reactor SAMG action. This study explores the qualitative structural integrity of the clad column. The analytical hydrogen generation is also estimated for all cases using the Baker and Just correlation. The experimentally measured transient hydrogen generation rate agrees well with the analytical prediction. The maximum amount of equivalent cladding reacted is 27 % during heating. A renewed enhanced oxidation leads to a drastic shoot-up in the hydrogen concentration during the reflood quenching. Nevertheless, the maximum hydrogen shoot-up remains the same irrespective of the reflood rates. The clad column in each test case has failed during reflooding.

Engineering uncertainty analysis of the heat transfer of fuel plates

Uranium-containing aluminum-cladding dispersion plate fuels are widely used in various research reactors owing to their excellent heat-transfer capability. In the nuclear design stage, both the maximum temperature of the cladding surface and the minimum departure from nucleate boiling ratio (MDNBR) must satisfy safety acceptance criteria to ensure the performance of the fuel plates. Many engineering-related uncertainties lead to deviations between the actual and design values. For safety considerations, these engineering-related uncertainties must be considered when analyzing the maximum temperature of the cladding surface and MDNBR. In this study, the various uncertainties of the engineering hot channel and hot spot factors, three methods of uncertainty analysis, and sensitivity analysis of these uncertainty factors were investigated. The results show that the square root of the sum of squares method is both conservative and economical. The sensitivity analysis results show that the flow channel gap deviation, produced by fuel plate manufacturing, has the greatest influence on the maximum temperature of the fuel cladding surface.

Fuzzy Control Modeling to Optimize the Hardness and Geometry of Laser Cladded Fe-Based MG Single Track on Stainless Steel Substrate Prepared at Different Surface Roughness.

Metallic glass (MG) is a promising coating material developed to enhance the surface hardness of metallic substrates, with laser cladding having become popular to develop such coatings. MGs properties are affected by the laser cladding variables (laser power, scanning speed, spot size). Meanwhile, the substrate surface roughness significantly affects the geometry and hardness of the laser-cladded MG. In this research, Fe-based MG was laser-cladded on substrates with different surface roughness. For this purpose, the surfaces of the substrate were prepared for cladding using two methods: sandpaper polishing (SP) and sandblasting (SB), with two levels of grit size used for each method (SP150, SP240, SB40, SB100). The experiment showed that substrate surface roughness affected the geometry and hardness of laser-cladded Fe-based MG. To predict and optimize the geometry and hardness of laser-cladded Fe-based MG single tracks at different substrate surface roughness, a fuzzy logic control system (FLCS) was developed. The FLCS results indicate that it is an efficient tool to select the proper preparation technique of the substrate surface for higher clad hardness and maximum geometry to minimize the number of cladding tracks for full surface cladding.

Effects of elevated temperature steam oxidation and subsequent quenching on light water reactor clad

Following a postulated severe accident, the temperature of fuel pins of light water reactor escalates because of decay heat and devoid of coolant. The presence of steam inside the core causes exothermic oxidation of the cladding surface at elevated temperatures. The in-vessel injection system of severe accident management guidelines injects the cold water inside the hot uncovered core to arrest the escalation of temperature rise and terminate the accident progression. However, the heated clad may be subjected to thermal shock during the quenching process, which inevitably assists in the failure and fragmentation of the severely oxidised fuel pins column.In this paper, the effect of thermal quenching shock on the severely oxidised fuel pins column during the reflooding of the hot uncovered core is studied experimentally. A 2ˣ2 square lattice arrangement of zircaloy-4 clads is used for experiments. First, the clads are oxidised in the presence of steam in the temperature range of 1100–1250 °C, and then the test-section is flooded with water at ambient temperature from its bottom. The violent heat transfer between the clad and cold water has been observed during the reflooding. Furthermore, the clad has failed with a circumferential crack at multiple locations along the clad length during this period; however, longitudinal cracks are not observed on the clad surface. The scanning electron micrographs of the clad samples show a significant oxide layer over the clad surface. At the same time, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy reveals significant oxygen diffusion inside the zirconium metal matrix, particularly near the outer tube surface.Additional experiments are performed to study the clad failure mechanism during the reflooding of the severely oxidised clad. The set of experiments reveals that the clad fails under the thermal quench shock (>7.41 °C/s) for severely oxidised cladding (ECR>25%) at an average temperature above 1100 °C. The failed clad is likely to create debris. The average quench front velocity is 0.6 cm/s while the reflood velocity is 1.13 cm/s. Quench velocity below the reflood velocity indicates excessive water evaporation and dispersed type flow ahead of the quench front. The total analytical H2 generated before reflooding is 3.75 g.

Characterization and single track analysis of a metal-ceramic composite laser cladding over Ti6Al4V alloy

The present experimental investigation is dealt with the formation of composite cladding on Ti6Al4V alloy using laser melting and deposition (LMD) technique. The reinforcement consisting of ilmenite (Fe-TiO3), CeO2, La2O3, cubic boron nitride (cBN) and Ti6Al4V in different compositions ratio are considered as cladding materials to fabricate a dense composite clad surface. Single tracks are formed using 15.92 × 104 w/cm2 laser power density and three different laser scanning speeds of 200,400 and 600 mm/min to analyze the clad height, aspect ratio, dilution rate and average contact angle of the track. Further, area clads are fabricated for different powder compositions of the cladding materials. The clad layer thickness are found to be decreases with increase in laser scanning speed and rise in the percentage of ilmenite (Fe-TiO3). The formation of different microstructure in the clad as well as interface zone are observed. With the increase in the percentage composition of ilmenite with cerium and lanthanum leads to the refined and coarser grain microstructure with unique structure are found which enhance mechanical properties like wear and hardness of the clad. Some of the important microstructure like dendritic, lamellar, flower, grit type and long needle type are found on the clad surface. The formation of unique chemical compound such as Ti3O, La2O3, Ti2B5, LaTi21O38, Ce3B2N4, Fe4N, TiN, La3BO6, and Fe-TiO3 are observed through the XRD analysis. Micro hardness of the clad surface are found to be increases approximately five times to the substrate at the clad with the increase in percentage composition of RE element, but found to be decrease drastically as passing through the intersection zone due to intermixing phenomena of clad and the substrate. It is observed that with higher percentage composition of RE result decrease in the reduction of the coefficient of friction approximately thrice to that of the cladded sample as compare to base (Ti6Al4V), which improve the wear resistance of the clad material. However there are minor amount of defects like micro crack are found on the clad and wear at the disk are occurred due to ploughing and cutting observed through track analysis.

Forming quality optimization and microstructure analysis of multilayer coatings with laser powder-fed additive manufacturing

To clarify the parameters interaction effects and improve the forming quality of Fe-Cr alloy multilayer laser powder-fed additive manufacturing (LPF-AM) on AISI 4340 substrate, experimental research for Fe-Cr alloy multilayer LPF-AM was carried out via the response surface method (RSM). The interaction effects and evolution rules of laser energy density ( E), powder feed rate ( Q), and Z-axis increment ( h) on minimum cladding height, deposition efficiency and surface spheroidization defects were discussed. The multiobjective particle filter resampling particle swarm optimization (MORPSO) algorithm was adopted to optimize the processing parameters. The phase transformation, grain growth, and microhardness of multilayer LPF-AM were analyzed. The results showed that the powder feed rate and Z-axis increment were found to affect the minimum cladding height and deposition efficiency, respectively. Laser energy density played an essential role in spheroidization defects. The forming quality was significantly improved based on the optimal process parameters of E = 33 J/mm2, Q = 0.5 g/s, and h = 0.8 mm. The primary and secondary remelting zones are fine equiaxed dendrites and irregular cellular structures, respectively, and the microstructure of the cladding tracks and layers showed a good metallurgical bonding. The microhardness of the cladding layer ranged from 321 ± 18 to 625 ± 24 HV0.5, and the average microhardness is twice that of the AISI 4340 substrate.

Twisted Fiber Optic SPR Sensor for GDF11 Concentration Detection.

There are few methods and insufficient accuracy for growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11) concentration detection. In this paper, we designed a twisted fiber cladding surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor, which can achieve a high precision detection of GDF11 concentration. The new structure of the fiber cladding SPR sensor was realized by coupling the light in the fiber core to the cladding through fiber thermal fusion twisting micromachining technology; a series of functionalized modifications were made to the sensor surface to obtain a fiber sensor capable of GDF11 specific recognition. The experimental results showed when GDF11 antigen concentration was 1 pg/mL-10 ng/mL, the sensor had a detection sensitivity of 2.518 nm/lgC, a detection limit of 0.34 pg/mL, and a good log-linear relationship. The sensor is expected to play a role in the rapid and accurate concentration detection of pathological study for growth differentiation factors.

A novel approach on designing ultrahigh burnup metallic TWR fuels: Upsetting the current technological limits

The grand challenge of “net-zero carbon” emission calls for technological breakthroughs in energy production. The traveling wave reactor (TWR) is designed to provide economical and safe nuclear power and solve imminent problems, including limited uranium resources and radiotoxicity burdens from back-end fuel reprocessing/disposal. However, qualification of fuels and materials for TWR remains challenging and it sets an “end of the road” mark on the route of R&D of this technology. In this article, a novel approach is proposed to maneuver reactor operations and utilize high-temperature transients to mitigate the challenges raised by envisioned TWR service environment. Annular U-50Zr fuel and oxidation dispersion strengthened (ODS) steels are proposed to be used instead of the current U-10Zr and HT-9 ferritic/martensitic steels. In addition, irradiation-accelerated transport of Mn and Cr to the cladding surface to form a protective oxide layer as a self-repairing mechanism was discovered and is believed capable of mitigating long-term corrosion. This work represents an attempt to disruptively overcome current technological limits in the TWR fuels.Impact statementAfter the Fukushima accident in 2011, the entire nuclear industry calls for a major technological breakthrough that addresses the following three fundamental issues: (1) Reducing spent nuclear fuel reprocessing demands, (2) reducing the probability of a severe accident, and (3) reducing the energy production cost per kilowatt-hour. An inherently safe and ultralong life fast neutron reactor fuel form can be such one stone that kills the three birds. In light of the recent development findings on U-50Zr fuels, we hereby propose a disruptive, conceptual metallic fuel design that can serve the following purposes at the same time: (1) Reaching ultrahigh burnup of above 40% FIMA, (2) possessing strong inherent safety features, and (3) extending current limits on fast neutron irradiation dose to be far beyond 200 dpa. We believe that this technology will be able to bring about revolutionary changes to the nuclear industry by significantly lowering the operational costs as well as improving the reactor system safety to a large extent.Graphical abstract

Wear Evaluation Results from a Practical Trial of Laser-Coated Pump Parts in the Mineral Processing Industry

Slurry pumps in the mineral processing industry are parts that erode very quickly. Erosion is predominantly caused by abrasion from fine particles of the ores. Because of this, the erosion process takes place on impeller blades and cover plates that directly contact the slurry. This paper evaluates the wear of laser-coated pump parts in the mineral processing industry. Building upon previous research conducted by the authors, we aimed to determine the best laser coating powder system to extend the useful life of specific laser-coated pump parts. Four blades of a slurry pump impeller were each treated with a different laser powder coating, then assessed for wear after 19 days of operation. During this real-life trial, each powder system performed differently. The laser coatings were worn away in two general directions. The first direction was along with the blade pattern, and the second wear direction was from the center of the impeller to the direct blade surface. Partial surface cladding led the material to wear away faster than complete surface cladding due to perpendicular force. Based on these results, in order to use material hardness and wear resistance to higher efficiency, we need to cover all surfaces with different thicknesses depending on the wear rate of the part. This study also showed that Powder System 2 was the most suitable coating material for this type of slurry pump.

High-temperature oxidation of zirconium alloys with magnetron sputtered chromium coatings

Loss-of-coolant accidents (LOCAs) often lead to dire consequences. That’s why the global community are actively engaged in research aimed at creating accident tolerant fuels. One of the areas of such research is preserving zirconium alloys as the material for fuel-element claddings by creating corrosion-resistant coatings that would be in contact with the coolant. Chromium could be a promising material to be used in such protective coatings as chromium oxide (Cr2O3) serves as an effective barrier for oxygen both in normal operation and in case of LOCA. Chromium coating hinders oxygen diffusion into the metal substrate and thus prevents embrittlement and failure of the fuel-element cladding. This paper describes the results of research studies that have been carried out in recent years and that look at the resistance of magnetron sputtered chromium coatings to high-temperature oxidation in water vapour up to 1,500 oC. The paper demonstrates advantages and drawbacks of chromium coatings in hightemperature oxidation conditions. The focus is on understanding how regimes of magnetron sputtering influence the resistance of chromium coatings to high-temperature oxidation and how the structure and phase state of chromium coatings are related to their properties. The authors describe the optimal regimes of magnetron sputtering for obtaining dense coatings and examine the effect of the substrate temperature and the bias voltage on the structure and density of resulting coatings. High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering (HiPIMS) serves as an effective technique that helps enhance the density of coatings. The conclusion drawn is that in order to broaden the temperature range in which chromium coatings can effectively protect zirconium alloys from failure up to 1500 oC, there should be a diffusion barrier between the surface of the fuel-element cladding and the chromium coating. The authors would like to thank B. A. Kalin, supervisor of this project, who had passed away before this publication was made. The staff of the Laboratory of Ion-Plasma and Ion-Beam Machining of Materials, a part of Department No. 9 at the National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, devote this paper to his memory.

OXIDE LAYER CHARACTERIZATION OF AlMg2 CLADDING OF IRRADIATED U3Si2/Al FUEL WITH 4,8 gU/cm3 DENSITY

OXIDE LAYER CHARACTERIZATION OF AlMg2 CLADDING OF IRRADIATED U3Si2/Al FUEL WITH 4,8 gU/cm3 DENSITY. To investigate the performance of AlMg2 cladding in the U3Si2/Al dispersion fuel, oxide layer characterization of AlMg2 cladding of the irradiated U3Si2/Al fuel with 4.8 gU/cm3 density was conducted. The oxide layer on the surface of AlMg2 cladding is one of the changes that occur on the cladding after the U3Si2/Al fuel plate has been irradiated in the RSG-GAS reactor to a burn-up of ∼40%. The characterization and observation of the oxide layer was conducted using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Samples with a size of 3x3 mm were taken from the middle of the fuel plate (middle position). After cutting, metallographic preparation includes mounting, grinding, polishing, and ultrasonic cleaning. SEM preparation was carried out by sputter coating using Au layer. The oxide layer on the AlMg2 cladding has a thickness of 10.3 µm with a uniformly distributed cracks along the oxide layer.Keyword: LEU, uranium-silicide, post-irradiation examination, AlMg2 cladding, oxide layer.

파울링된 피복관 표면의 가압 경수로 운전환경에서의 미포화 비등 열전달 성능평가를 위한 실험장치 구축 연구

The CRUD (Chalk River Unidentified Deposit or Corrosion Related Unidentified Deposit) is a fouling deposit of metal or metal oxide on the nuclear fuel cladding under PWR (Pressurized Water Reactor) operating conditions and causing the several operational and safety-related problems. The major concerns related to the CRUD are AOA (Axial Offset Anomaly) caused by the accumulation of the boron species inside the porous CRUD from the primary reactor coolant and CILC (CRUD Induced Localized Corrosion) caused by locally increased cladding surface temperature due to the additional thermal resistance of the CRUD layer. The growth of CRUD and the CRUD-related problems are known to be governed by the sub-cooled nucleate boiling phenomena inside the upper part of the reactor core, especially on the hot fuel assembly and hot fuel pin. In the current study, the experimental facility called DISNY (crud DeposItion Simulator for Nuclear energY) was proposed as a testbed to simulate the CRUD growth and to investigate the sub-cooled nucleate boiling heat transfer performance of the CRUD deposited cladding surface under prototypical PWR operating conditions.

The Electrochemical and Microstructure Effects of TiB2 and SiC Addition to AA5052/Al2O3 Surface Composite Coatings in 0.5 M H2SO4 Solution

In this work, Al2O3, SiC, and TiB2 ceramic coatings with different formulations were produced on the surface of AA5052 matrix by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The corrosion behavior of the composites and the base metal (BM) was evaluated in a solution of 0.5 M H2SO4 with electrochemical techniques such as open circuit potential (OCP) monitoring, potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The morphology of the cladded surfaces was monitored by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Based on the PDP and EIS results, BM had the lowest corrosion rate in the 0.5 M H2SO4 solution. All composite coatings shifted to higher corrosion rate values than that of BM, indicating that AA5052 composites had lower corrosion resistance compared to the BM. SEM images of the corroded surface of BM exhibit minimum pitting corrosion in sulfuric acid media. According to electrochemical studies, AA5052/Al2O3 + SiC + TiB2 composite had the lowest corrosion resistance due to the formation of micro-galvanic sites on the aluminum matrix surface. However, the AA5052/Al2O3 + TiB2 composite showed the best corrosion performance compared to other composites. In general, by adding SiC and TiB2 ceramics to Al2O3 and fabricating binary composites, the corrosion resistance of AA5052/Al2O3 composite is improved. Although the corrosion resistance of AA5052 composites is lower than the BM, their higher surface hardness makes their use justified in applications where high mechanical properties are required if the environment is not too aggressive.Graphical Abstract

Investigating The Effect of Nickel Buttering on Corrosion Resistance

Cladding is usually employed for improving corrosion and/or abrasion resistance of a component. Buttering layer between clad layer and structural steel is also sometimes provided to promote bonding between the cladding and the substrate. The buttering layer may also give desired corrosion resistance. Nickel is known to be a common austenite stabilizer, and it is often put inside cladding, coating, buttering, etc. to enhance hardness and corrosion protection of steel. In the current investigation, 316 austenitic stainless steel is deposited over nickel plated medium carbon steel substrate with the help of metal active gas welding. Nickel is accumulated on medium carbon steel by electroplating to act as a buttering layer. Welding current and torch travel speed, two important process parameters are varied with constant arc voltage to develop different values of heat input. Accelerated corrosion test in chloride atmosphere is done on ground and polished clad surface. Corrosion rate is observed to be decreased significantly for all the clad samples relative to the base material. However, no clear trend of corrosion rate against increment in heat input is found for reporting, but corrosion rate shows a typical pattern with the variation of heat input.

An overview of recent advancement in grade cladded surface using overlay techniques and various materials

In this review paper, previous studies on effect of cladding on surface of welding using overlay was discussed. The Research papers up to 2021 related with various cladding methods, effect on mechanical properties and overlay methods were discussed. Also, paper discussed the effect on tribological behavior. This paper reported the various metal and its alloy, recent development in advanced materials for cladding in various high temperature applications. The merits, demerits, limitations and future development and possible area of research in welding cladding methods were discussed.

SIMULATION OF HEAT GENERATION IN FRICTION SURFACE CLADDING (FSC) OF MULTILAYER AA2024

Friction surface cladding (FSC) is a solid-state cladding process that produces a thin metal layer on the substrate. It can be utilised at the surface to change the mechanical and corrosive properties of structural materials. There is a lack of retaining between the clad material and the substrate, resulting in loss of retaining between the clad material and the substrate. In this project, to estimate the heat generation during friction surface cladding (FSC) process for multilayer AA2024 using comsol multiphysics 5.5. The process parameter with different layer thickness has been investigated. Clad layer thickness 0.4mm -1.6mm (0.4mm each layer) with constant rotation speed 600rpm and translation speed 30mm/min was tested in this simulation to detect heat distribution. From the simulation result, the temperature increases significantly when cladding process started. With the thickness layer 0.4mm, the simulation shows the highest temperature which is same as the experimental result. For the conclusion, the clad layer thickness can affect the heat generation during friction surface cladding. As a result, the rate of heat generation is inversely proportional to the thickness of the clad layer. The thicker the clad layer, the lower the rate of heat distribution.

Effect of Repetitively Pulsed Laser Radiation on the Morphology, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of WC – NiCrBSi Coatings Obtained by Laser Surface Cladding

Effect of Repetitively Pulsed Laser Radiation on the Morphology, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of WC – NiCrBSi Coatings Obtained by Laser Surface Cladding