Surface Nanoscale Axial Photonics Research Articles

Efficient postprocessing technique for fabricating surface nanoscale axial photonics microresonators with subangstrom precision by femtosecond laser.

We demonstrated the subangstrom precise correction of surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) micro-resonators by the femtosecond (fs) laser postprocessing technique for the first time. The internal stress can be induced by fs laser inscriptions in the fiber, causing nanoscale effective radius variation (ERV). However, the obtained ultraprecise fabrication usually undergoes multiple tries. Here, we propose a novel postprocessing technique based on the fs laser that significantly reduces the ERV errors and improves the fabrication precision without iterative corrections. The postexposure process is achieved at the original exposure locations using lower pulse energy than that in the initial fabrication process. The results show that the ERV is nearly proportional to the pulse energy of the postexposure process. The slope of the ERV versus the pulse energy is 0.07Å/nJ. The maximum of the postprocessed ERV can reach 8.0Å. The repeatability was experimentally verified by accomplishing the correction on three SNAP microresonators with the precision of 0.75Å. The developed fabrication technique with fs laser enables SNAP microresonators with new breakthrough applications for optomechanics and filters.

Discovery of parabolic microresonators produced via fiber tapering.

We demonstrate a new method for the creation of surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) microresonators with harmonic profiles via fiber tapering in a laser-heated microfurnace. This simple procedure makes microresonators that support hundreds of axial modes with good spacing uniformity, yielding a promising prospective method for fabricating miniature frequency comb generators and dispersionless delay lines.

Tunable SNAP microresonators via internal ohmic heating

We demonstrate a thermally tunable surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) platform. Stable tuning is achieved by heating a SNAP structure fabricated on the surface of a silica capillary with a metal wire positioned inside. Heating a SNAP microresonator with a uniform wire introduces uniform variation of its effective radius which results in constant shift of its resonance wavelengths. Heating with a nonuniform wire allows local nanoscale variation of the capillary effective radius, which enables differential tuning of the spectrum of SNAP structures, as well as the creation of temporary SNAP microresonators that exist only when current is applied. As an example, we fabricate two bottle microresonators coupled to each other and demonstrate differential tuning of their resonance wavelengths into and out of degeneracy with precision better than 0.2pm. The developed approach is beneficial for ultra-precise fabrication of tunable ultralow loss parity-time symmetric, optomechanical, and cavity quantum electrodynamics (QED) devices.

Surface nanoscale axial photonics at a capillary fiber: publisher’s note

This publisher's note corrects the surname of one of the authors of Opt. Lett.42, 3060 (2017)OPLEDP0146-959210.1364/OL.42.003060.

Surface nanoscale axial photonics at a capillary fiber.

We present the theory and first experimental demonstration, to the best of our knowledge, of a sensing platform based on surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) at a capillary fiber. The platform explores optical whispering gallery modes, which circulate inside the wall of a capillary and slowly propagate along its axis. Due to the small thickness of the capillary wall, these modes are sensitive to spatial and temporal variations of the refractive index of the media adjacent to the internal capillary surface. In particular, the developed theory allows us to determine the internal effective radius variation of the capillary from the measured mode spectra. Experimentally, a SNAP resonator is created by local annealing of the capillary with a focused CO2 laser followed by internal etching with hydrofluoric acid. The comparison of the spectra of this resonator in the cases when it is empty and filled with water allows us to determine the internal surface nonuniformity introduced by etching. The results obtained pave the way for a novel advanced approach in sensing of media adjacent to the internal capillary surface and, in particular, in microfluidic sensing.

Precise optical characterization of SNAP structures with a reference fiber.

A method of precise characterization of surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) structures with a reference fiber is proposed, analyzed, and demonstrated experimentally. The method is based on simultaneous coupling of a microfiber to a SNAP structure under test and to a reference optical fiber. Significant reduction of measurement errors associated with the environmental temperature variations and technical noise of the spectrum analyzer is demonstrated. The achieved measurement precision of the effective radius variation of the SNAP structure is 0.2 Å.

Fabrication of surface nanoscale axial photonics structures with a femtosecond laser.

Surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) structures are fabricated with a femtosecond laser for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. The inscriptions introduced by the laser pressurize the fiber and cause its nanoscale effective radius variation. We demonstrate the subangstrom precise fabrication of individual and coupled SNAP microresonators having the effective radius variation of several nanometers. Our results pave the way to a novel ultraprecise SNAP fabrication technology based on the femtosecond laser inscription.

Nanobump microresonator.

We introduce a whispering gallery-mode (WGM) nanobump microresonator (NBMR) and develop its theory. This microresonator is formed by an asymmetric nanoscale-high deformation of the translationally symmetric optical fiber surface, which is employed in fabrication of surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) structures. It is shown that an NBMR causes strong localization of WGMs near a closed ray (geodesic) at the fiber surface, provided that this ray is stable. Our theory explains and describes the experimentally observed localization of WGMs by NBMRs and is useful for the design and fabrication of SNAP devices.

Nanophotonics of optical fibers

AbstractThis review is concerned with nanoscale effects in highly transparent dielectric photonic structures fabricated from optical fibers. In contrast to those in plasmonics, these structures do not contain metal particles, wires, or films with nanoscale dimensions. Nevertheless, a nanoscale perturbation of the fiber radius can significantly alter their performance. This paper consists of three parts. The first part considers propagation of light in thin optical fibers (microfibers) having the radius of the order of 100 nanometers to 1 micron. The fundamental mode propagating along a microfiber has an evanescent field which may be strongly expanded into the external area. Then, the cross-sectional dimensions of the mode and transmission losses are very sensitive to small variations of the microfiber radius. Under certain conditions, a change of just a few nanometers in the microfiber radius can significantly affect its transmission characteristics and, in particular, lead to the transition from the waveguiding to non-waveguiding regime. The second part of the review considers slow propagation of whispering gallery modes in fibers having the radius of the order of 10–100 microns. The propagation of these modes along the fiber axis is so slow that they can be governed by extremely small nanoscale changes of the optical fiber radius. This phenomenon is exploited in SNAP (surface nanoscale axial photonics), a new platform for fabrication of miniature super-low-loss photonic integrated circuits with unprecedented sub-angstrom precision. The SNAP theory and applications are overviewed. The third part of this review describes methods of characterization of the radius variation of microfibers and regular optical fibers with sub-nanometer precision.

A SNAP coupled microresonator delay line

A delay line fabricated of a chain of SNAP (Surface Nanoscale Axial Photonics) coupled microresonators is demonstrated. In contrast to resonant delay lines demonstrated to date, the slow light in this structure is enhanced by the 2R (Rotation + Reflection) effect realized due to the 3D propagation of light along the surface of a SNAP fiber. Here, the delay line coupled to a single input/output waveguide (i.e., operating in the reflection mode) is considered. Depending on the coupling parameters and loss, the delay time in this device is either proportional to the density of resonances averaged over the pulse spectrum or tends to zero. The delay line is fabricated of 20 coupled microresonators with the total length of 1.2 mm and footprint area of 0.05 mm2. It exhibits the record low insertion loss (< 3 dB), small speed of light (<c/250), and large (>1 ns) delay time along the 0.1 nm bandwidth achieved for the miniature microresonator delay lines. The feasibility of significant improvement of the SNAP delay line characteristics (larger delay time and bandwidth, smaller losses and dimensions, and anti-reflecting apodization) is discussed.

SNAP: Fabrication of long coupled microresonator chains with sub-angstrom precision

Based on the recently-introduced Surface Nanoscale Axial Photonics (SNAP) platform, we demonstrate a chain of 30 coupled SNAP microresonators spaced by 50 micron along an optical fiber, which is fabricated with the precision of 0.7 angstrom and a standard deviation of 0.12 angstrom in effective microresonator radius. To the best of our knowledge, this result surpasses those achieved in other super-low-loss photonic technologies developed to date by two orders of magnitude. The chain exhibits bandgaps in both the discrete and continuous spectrum in excellent agreement with theory. The developed method enables robust fabrication of SNAP devices with sub-angstrom precision.

Theory of SNAP devices: basic equations and comparison with the experiment

A SNAP (Surface Nanoscale Axial Photonics) device consists of an optical fiber with introduced nanoscale effective radius variation, which is coupled to transverse input/output waveguides. The input waveguides excite whispering gallery modes circulating near the fiber surface and slowly propagating along the fiber axis. In this paper, the theory of SNAP devices is developed and applied to the analysis of transmission amplitudes of simplest SNAP models exhibiting a variety of asymmetric Fano resonances and also to the experimental characterization of a SNAP bottle microresonator and to a chain of 10 coupled microresonators. Excellent agreement between the theory and the experiment is demonstrated.

Photo-induced SNAP: fabrication, trimming, and tuning of microresonator chains

We introduce multiple series of uncoupled and coupled surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) microresonators along the 30 micron diameter germanium-doped photosensitive silica optical fiber and demonstrate their permanent trimming and temporary tuning with a CO2 laser and a wire heater. Hydrogen loading allows us to increase the introduced variation of the effective fiber radius by an order of magnitude compared to the unloaded case, i.e., to around 5 nm. It is demonstrated that the CO2 laser annealing of the fabricated microresonator chain can be used to modify the fiber radius variation. Depending on the CO2 laser beam power, the microresonator effective radius variation can be increased in depth up to the factor of two or completely erased. In addition, we demonstrate temporary tuning of a microresonator chain with a wire heater.

Coupled high Q-factor surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) microresonators

We experimentally demonstrate series of identical two, three, and five coupled high Q-factor surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) microresonators formed by periodic nanoscale variation of the optical fiber radius. These microresonators are fabricated with a 100 μm period along an 18 μm radius optical fiber. The axial FWHM of these microresonators is 80 μm and their Q-factor exceeds 10(7). In addition, we demonstrate a SNAP microresonator with the axial FWHM as small as 30 μm and the axial FWHM of the fundamental mode as small as 10 μm. These results may potentially enable the dense integration of record low loss coupled photonic microdevices on the optical fiber platform.

Surface nanoscale axial photonics: robust fabrication of high-quality-factor microresonators

Recently introduced surface nanoscale axial photonics (SNAP) makes it possible to fabricate high-Q-factor microresonators and other photonic microdevices by dramatically small deformation of the optical fiber surface. To become a practical and robust technology, the SNAP platform requires methods enabling reproducible modification of the optical fiber radius at nanoscale. In this Letter, we demonstrate superaccurate fabrication of high-Q-factor microresonators by nanoscale modification of the optical fiber radius and refractive index using CO2 laser and UV excimer laser beam exposures. The achieved fabrication accuracy is better than 2 Å in variation of the effective fiber radius.

Surface nanoscale axial photonics

Dense photonic integration promises to revolutionize optical computing and communications. However, efforts towards this goal face unacceptable attenuation of light caused by surface roughness in microscopic devices. Here we address this problem by introducing Surface Nanoscale Axial Photonics (SNAP). The SNAP platform is based on whispering gallery modes circulating around the optical fiber surface and undergoing slow axial propagation readily described by the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation. These modes can be steered with dramatically small nanoscale variation of the fiber radius, which is quite simple to introduce in practice. Extremely low loss of SNAP devices is achieved due to the low surface roughness inherent in a drawn fiber surface. In excellent agreement with the developed theory, we experimentally demonstrate localization of light in quantum wells, halting light by a point source, tunneling through potential barriers, dark states, etc. This demonstration has intriguing potential applications in filtering, switching, slowing light, and sensing.