Surface Modification Applications Research Articles

Lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles as nanoprobes for bioimaging.

Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) are a class of nanomaterials composed of lanthanide ions with great potential for paraclinical applications, especially in laboratory and imaging sciences. UCNPs have tunable optical properties and the ability to convert long-wavelength (low energy) excitation light into short-wavelength (high energy) emission in the ultraviolet (UV)-visible and near-infrared (NIR) spectral regions. The core-shell structure of UCNPs can be customized through chemical synthesis to meet the needs of different applications. The surface of UCNPs can also be tailored by conjugating small molecules and/or targeting ligands to achieve high specificity and selectivity, which are indispensable elements in biomedical applications. Specifically, coatings can enhance the water dispersion, biocompatibility, and efficiency of UCNPs, thereby optimizing their functionality and boosting their performance. In this context, multimodal imaging can provide more accurate in vivo information when combined with nuclear imaging. This article intends to provide a comprehensive review of the core structure, structure optimization, surface modification, and various recent applications of UCNPs in biomolecular detection, cell imaging, tumor diagnosis, and deep tissue imaging. We also present and discuss some of their critical challenges, limitations, and potential future directions.

PROCESS OPTIMIZATION OF ELECTRO-SPARK DEPOSITION USING LASER POWDER BED FUSION PROCESSED AlSi10Mg TOOL ELECTRODE THROUGH BOX-BEHNKEN DESIGN

Several researchers have recently expressed interest in additively manufactured electrodes for machining and surface modification applications. The additively manufactured AlSi10Mg tool electrode is one of the promising candidate materials for non-conventional processes. This research investigates the process parameters of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) processed AlSi10Mg tool electrodes for the electro-spark deposition process (ESD). The selected deposition parameters, namely, peak current (Pc), pulse-on time (Pon) and deposition time (DT) with various levels and experimentation, are based on the box-behnken design (BBD) of the response surface methodology. The deposition was carried out to analyze the output responses of material deposition rate (MDR), additive tool wear rate (ATWR) and surface roughness (SR). The multi-objective optimization was performed to minimize the ATWR and SR and maximize the MDR. The optimized ESD parameters of Pc = 6 A, Pon = 20[Formula: see text]s, and DT = 5 min were found with predicted responses of MDR = 0.019 mg/min, ATWR = 0.095 mg/min and SR = 3.86 [Formula: see text]m. The deposited surface witnessed the formation of debris, microcracks, and a solidified surface with a dark region and accumulated worn debris that has an elongated and flat shape. The workpiece substrate was exposed to a significant amount of additive tool electrode material (Si, Al, O, Mg, S), and different intermetallic ([Formula: see text] Si) 0.148, Al2O3, and Al2S3 formations have been recognized. This finding corroborates the efficient usage of L-PBF AlSi10Mg electrodes for ESD processes.

Enhancing the Scalability of Crystallization-Driven Self-Assembly Using Flow Reactors.

Anisotropic materials have garnered significant attention due to their potential applications in cargo delivery, surface modification, and composite reinforcement. Crystallization-driven self-assembly (CDSA) is a practical way to access anisotropic structures, such as 2D platelets. Living CDSA, where platelets are formed by using seed particles, allows the platelet size to be well controlled. Nonetheless, the current method of platelet preparation is restricted to low concentrations and small scales, resulting in inefficient production, which hampers its potential for commercial applications. To address this limitation, continuous flow reactors were employed to improve the production efficiency. Flow platforms ensure consistent product quality by maintaining the same parameters throughout the process, circumventing batch-to-batch variations and discrepancies observed during scale-up. In this study, we present the first demonstration of living CDSA performed within flow reactors. A continuous flow system was established, and the epitaxial growth of platelets was initially conducted to study the influence of flow parameters such as temperature, residence time, and flow rate on the morphology of platelets. Comparison of different epitaxial growth manners of seeds and platelets was made when using seeds to perform living CDSA. Size-controllable platelets from seeds can be obtained from a series flow system by easily tuning flow rates. Additionally, uniform platelets were continuously collected, exhibiting improved size and dispersity compared to those obtained in batch reactions.

Surface modification of titanium implants with Mg-containing coatings to promote osseointegration.

Titanium (Ti) and Ti alloys are commonly used in dental implants, which have good biocompatibility, mechanical strength, processability, and corrosion resistance. However, the surface inertia of Ti implants leads to delayed integration of Ti and new bone, as well as problems such as aseptic loosening and inadequate osseointegration. Magnesium ions (Mg) can promote bone regeneration, and many studies have used Mg-containing materials to modify the Ti implant surface. This systematic review summarizes the methods, effects, and clinical applications of surface modification of Ti implants with Mg-containing coatings. Database collection was completed on Janury 1, 2023, and a total of 29 relevant studies were ultimately included. Mg can be compounded with different materials and coated to the surface of Ti implants using different methods. On the one hand, the surface roughness of implants increases with the addition of Mg-containing coatings, which is thought to have an impact on the osseointegration of the implant. On the other hand, Mg ions promote cell attachment through binding interactions between the integrin family and FAK-related signaling pathways. And Mg ions could induce osseointegration by activating PI3K, Notch, ERK/c-Fos, BMP-4-related signaling pathways and TRPM7 protein channels. In vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that Mg-containing coatings promote cell adhesion and osteogenic differentiation. In addition, Mg-containing implants have been used in clinical trials to assess various outcomes, and the results have shown that there is no synergistic effect between blasting and Mg incorporation, which may be due to the short observation periods. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: : As a commonly used dental implant material, the surface inertia of titanium (Ti) implants leads to delayed osseointegration, which may result in aseptic loosening or insufficient osseointegration. Magnesium ions (Mg), known for promoting bone regeneration, have been extensively studied to modify the surface of Ti implants. This paper provides a systematic review of the literature on the surface modification of Ti implants with Mg-containing compounds, highlighting the effects of Mg-containing coatings on the surface properties of Ti implants and associated mechanisms. Furthermore, this study presents the clinical prospects of Mg-modified implants and discusses the challenges that need to be addressed for successful application.

Discharge characteristics of an atmospheric pulsed microwave Ar/CF4 plasma jet

The atmospheric fluorocarbon plasma is widely used in surface modification of polymers. Recently, the pulsed microwave Ar/CF4 plasma jet is proved to be a promising atmospheric fluorocarbon plasma source with good performance. In this paper, the discharge characteristics of the pulsed microwave Ar/CF4 plasma jet are studied systematically. The discharge morphologies, ionization processes, optical emission spectra, and electron densities are obtained by a digital camera, an intensified charge coupled device, a fiber spectrometer, and a home-made microwave Rayleigh scattering device, respectively. The influences of the plasma operation parameters on the discharge characteristics are investigated, and the microwave input power and CF4 volume fraction are optimized. The results provide a basis for the generation and surface modification application of high-performance atmospheric fluorocarbon plasma.

Revealing the Grain-Boundary-Cracking Induced Capacity Decay of a High-Voltage LiCoO2 at 4.6 V.

During a practical battery manufacture process, the LiCoO2 (LCO) electrodes are usually rolled with high pressure to achieve better performance, including reducing electrode polarization, increasing compact density, enhancing mechanical toughness, etc. In this work, a high-voltage LCO (HV-LCO) is achieved via modulating a commercialized LCO with an Al/F enriched and spinel reinforced surface structure. We reveal that the rolling can more or less introduce risk of grain-boundary-cracking (GBC) inside the HV-LCO and accelerate the capacity decay when cycled at 3-4.6 V vs Li/Li+. In particular, the concept of interface structure is proposed to explain the reason for the deteriorated cycle stability. As the GBC is generated, the interface structure of HV-LCO alters from a surface spinel phase to a hybrid of surface spinel plus boundary layer phases, leading to the exposure of some the nonprotective layer phase against the electrolyte. This alternation causes serious bulk structure damage upon cycles, including expanding GBC among the primary crystals, forming intragranular cracks and inactive spinel phases inside the bulk regions, etc., eventually leading to the deteriorated cycle stability. Above all, we realize that it is far from enough to achieve a eligible high-voltage LCO via only applying surface modification. This work provides a new insight for developing more advanced LCO cathodes.

Surface modification of polymers by ion irradiation: Reactivity principle and application

Modifying polymers through ion irradiation is an advantageous method for controlling polymer with desirable properties. The surface modification mechanism and application of polymers by ion irradiation are under exploration. This review systematically analyzes the recent progress on the surface modification of common polymers by ion irradiation. The fundamentals of irradiation principle and chemical interaction, the irradiation effect of microstructure, macroproperties, and related characterization methods are introduced for the innovated applications. The effect of ion beam conditions (heavy or light ions, high or low energy/fluences) on different polymers is systematically analyzed for the different irradiation effect to achieve surface modification, in which the coupling mechanism between nuclear and electronic stopping power is provided. To meet the requirement of various application, the relationship between micro representation and macro performance is thoroughly discussed and established combined with the concerns regarding ion irradiation induced regulation mechanism. For the practical/potential application prospects, the frontier research on membrane separation, electrical, and biomedical applications are discussed. This review offers valuable insights into the modified microstructures versus the necessary surface properties of polymer by ion irradiation.

Electrochemical reduction of formic acid to diamond-like carbon films on stainless steel in aqueous solutions

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) films show attractive applications in surface modification of stainless steels (SS) owing to their high corrosion resistance and low friction coefficient. Electrodeposition is a cost-efficient method to prepare carbon films. DLC films were electrodeposited from formic acid solutions, however severe hydrogen evolution on stainless steel led to extremely low current efficiencies. Sodium formate was used to reduce the concentration of protons in the electrolyte and slightly improved the current efficiency. To further inhibit hydrogen evolution, dimethyl sulfoxide was added into the electrolyte as a proton acceptor. The current efficiency for carbon deposition increased more than 28 times, and the deposition rate reached as high as 1.6 μm h−1. The corrosion and wear resistance of DLC coated stainless steel were improved.

Self-Powered UV Photodetector of TiO2 with BaTiO3 Surface Modification and Light-Controlled Logic Circuits Application.

One-dimensional (1D) metal oxides with excellent carrier transport and light absorption properties can be applied to photodetectors (PDs), facilitating device miniaturization, portability, and integration. Surface modification of 1D semiconductors can reduce carrier recombination in PDs as a way to increase photocurrent and decrease dark current of PDs. Herein, ultrathin BaTiO3 (BTO) shell layers are grown on the surface of TiO2 nanorod arrays (NRs) by in situ conversion using hydrothermal reaction, and the self-powered TiO2-BTO NRs PDs are constructed. The effect of the thickness of BTO shell layers on the photoresponse characteristics of self-powered TiO2-BTO NRs PDs is investigated by controlling the Ba2+ conversion concentration. The results show that the BTO shell layer reduces the dark current of the PDs because of the decreased interfacial transfer resistance and improved transfer of photogenerated carriers for building a "bridge" of carrier transport between BTO and TiO2 due to the formation of Ti-O-Ti bonds. Moreover, the presence of the spontaneous polarization electric field in BTO enhances the photocurrent and response speed of PDs. The self-powered TiO2-BTO NRs PDs are integrated in series and parallel to realize the functions of "and" and "or" gates of light-controlled logic gates. The ability to convert light signals into electrical signals for the self-powered PDs in real time demonstrates its great potential for optoelectronic interconnection circuits, which has important application prospects in the field of optical communication.

Thermal and Surface Area Properties of Micro and Nano Sized Pumice

Raw pumice samples were modified with nano carbon black, borax, and nano carbon-borax using the sol-gel method by applying surface modification processes, and the changes in the thermal behavior of the surface modification of the raw pumice were studied by characterizing them with FE-SEM, EDX, FT-IR, XRD, BET and TGA-DTA. In the analyses made with FE-SEM, it was observed that the surface and pore structure of the raw pumice changed after the modified process, and in the EDX analysis, it was determined that nano carbon black and borax adhered to the surface of the raw pumice. In the XRD results, no change in the crystal structure of the raw pumice was observed after the modified treatment. TGA-DTA analysis showed that the mass loss of raw pumice (P) was greater than pumice-nano carbon black (PC), pumice-borax (PB), and pumice-borax-nano carbon black (PBC). Accordingly, raw pumice showed a mass loss of approximately 25%, pumice-borax (PB) and pumice-nano carbon black (PC) 0.45%, and pumice-borax-nano carbon black (PBC) nearly 3%. According to the BET analysis results, it was determined that the raw pumice has a surface area of 28.126 m2/g. After the surface modification process, the surface area of the raw pumice was determined as 52.127 m2/g in the pumice-nano carbon black sample, 49.125 m2/g in the pumice-borax sample, and 32.523 m2/g in the pumice-borax-carbon black sample. Considering the data obtained, the best surface properties were showed in pumice-nano carbon black (PC). Research results showed that; the modification process with nano carbon black and borax changed the thermal behavior of raw pumice.

DPF-produced TiN coatings on NiTi: biological and mechanical properties

One of the best ways to obtain TiN coatings is through the nitriding process by efficient methods such as dense plasma focus (DPF). The gas composition of the nitrogen environment is a crucial factor affecting the properties of the coating. In this study, three different atmospheres of 100%N2, 50%N2–50%O2, and 75%N2–25%Ar were used to investigate their impact on the mechanical and biological properties of TiN coatings on NiTi substrate. The operating condition that yielded the coating with the highest hardness, as well as the lowest contact angle and Ni ion release, was chosen as the optimum condition. According to the XRD results, TiN was recognized as the dominant phase which causes high hardness and prevents Ni ion release. Moreover, surface analyses determined that the sample coated in 50%N2 composition possessed higher hardness and as a result displayed better mechanical properties. Also, the improved microstructural properties lead to an enhanced coating/substrate adhesion strength. On the other hand, the reaction of TiO2 and TiN lead to the formation of TiN0.6O0.4 ternary compound and for this reason, the 50%N2–50%O2 sample exhibited better performance in preventing the release of the toxic nickel ion compared to the other samples. Finally, due to the presence of TiO2 and TiN0.6O0.4 in the sample surface treated at 50%N2–50%O2, better hydrophilicity was observed compared to other samples. Results confirm that the applied surface modification method is effective in increasing the mechanical and biological properties of the NiTi, where it may open numerous possibilities for efficient use in orthopedic applications.

Ficus religiosa-inspired microstructure-controlled low surface energy coatings with long-term antifouling effect

In general, antifouling coatings based on structural design mostly use the most basic shapes such as cuboids as repeating units. In this study, four kinds of complex surface micro-structured coatings inspired by natural bifacial leaf Ficus religiosa were obtained and applied to the field of marine antifouling coatings. Based on the antifouling mechanism of surface microstructure, SiO2 @PDMS(polydimethylsiloxane)-based Ficus religiosa-like coatings (Gxy, x = D or Z, y = A or I) were prepared by the blending method and the biological template method using the same positive and negative film materials. The antifouling performances of the coatings were evaluated by mussel attachment experiments and diatom attachment experiments. Compared with pure PDMS, the anti-mussel adhesion rate of SiO2@PDMS can be as high as 73.08 %. After 8-day diatom attachment experiments, the SiO2 @PDMS-based and adaxial side-structured negative film (GDI) showed an excellent antifouling performance compared with non-structured sample, and the anti-diatom adhesion rate was 17.96. In addition, a series of surface-modified micro-structured SiO2 @PDMS-based coatings (MGxy, x = D or Z, y = A or I) were prepared from the perspective of low surface energy. The surface energy of MGxy is between 19.62 and 29.95 mJ/m2, and the surface energy after diatom attachment experiment is between 13.51 and 22.23 mJ/m2. The structure, hydrolysis-condensation modification, hydrolysate and the effect of structure on hydrolysate were analyzed by the results of diatom attachment experiment. The importance of structure and the complementary effect of structure and modification on antifouling performance were explained again. Among them, the modified SiO2 @PDMS-based and abaxial side-structured positive film (MGZA) showed the best anti-diatom performance. After 8 days diatom attachment experiment, the anti-diatom adhesion rate of MGZA was as high as 90.78 %. Moreover, the newly discovered microstructural units on GDI and MGZA were parameterized. The results of this study provide insights for further research and long-term application of bionic microstructure and surface modification in the field of antifouling.

ELECTRODEPOSITED GRAPHENE OXIDE-HYDROXYAPATITE COMPOSITE COATING WITH IMPROVED BONDING STRENGTH FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATION

In order to improve the interfacial bonding at coating-substrate, a graphene oxide-hydroxyapatite (GH) coating was designed and constructed. The microstructure, bonding strength and in vitro bioactivity of the coating were analyzed. The results showed that GH coating presented uniform and crack-free structure with a flake morphology. The bonding strength of GH coating was 7.81[Formula: see text]MPa, which is about 1.2 times that of pure hydroxyapatite coating. In vitro bioactivity test using simulated body fluid exhibited that GH coating processes the ability to induce apatite formation. The GH coating should have potential application in surface modification for biomedical materials.

Research Progress in Surface Modification Engineering and Application of PbSe Quantum Dots

Research Progress in Surface Modification Engineering and Application of PbSe Quantum Dots

Functional Surface Generation by EDM-A Review.

Electro-discharge machining (EDM) removes electrically conductive materials by high frequency spark discharges between the tool electrode and the workpiece in the presence of a dielectric liquid. Being an electrothermal process and with melting and evaporation being the mechanisms of material removal, EDM suffers from migration of materials between the tool and the workpiece. Although unwanted surface modification was considered a challenge in the past for many applications, this inherent nature of the EDM process has recently become of interest to the scientific community. As a result, researchers have been focusing on using the EDM process for surface modification and coating by targeted surface engineering. In order to engineer a surface or generate functional coatings using the electro-discharge process, proper knowledge of the EDM process and science of electro-discharge surface modification must be understood. This paper aims to provide an overview of the electro-discharge surface modification and coating processes, thus assisting the readers on exploring potential applications of EDM-based techniques of surface engineering and coating generation. This review starts with a brief introduction to the EDM process, the physics behind the EDM process, and the science of the surface modification process in EDM. The paper then discusses the reasons and purposes of surface modification and coating practices. The common EDM-based techniques reported in the literature for producing coatings on the surface are discussed with their process mechanisms, important parameters, and design considerations. The characterization techniques used for the analysis of modified surfaces and coating layers, as well as the tribological and surface properties of modified surfaces or coatings are discussed. Some of the important applications of EDM-based surface modification and coating processes are generating surfaces for protective coating, for aesthetic purposes, for enhancing the biocompatibility of implants, for improving corrosion resistance, for improving wear resistance, and for improving tribological performance. The current state of the research in these application areas is discussed with examples. Finally, suggestions are provided on future research directions and innovative potential new applications of the electro-discharge-based surface engineering and coating processes.

Effect of Zinc Oxide Concentrations on Anodic Coated AZ91D Mg Alloy for Surface Modification Applications

The AZ91D Magnesium (Mg) Alloy is broadly known as an attractive material with many applications ranging from military goods and aerospace to automobile applications due to its excellent properties in lightweight, machinability, and castability. Unfortunately, Mg Alloys are also prone to corrosion resulting in degradation of the components, which can lead to severe component failure and injuries. Thus, corrosion prevention is required for the AZ91D Mg alloy to increase its performance in the environment. This paper uses the anodising method to study the influence of Zinc Nitrate’s electrolyte concentrations on anodic coated AZ91D Mg Alloys. This method formed a thin film layer on the AZ91D Mg Alloy’s samples known as an anodic film, which can potentially reduce the corrosion activity on the surface of the substrate. To investigate the corrosion activity of the anodised samples, the corrosion rate value was calculated by immersion of coated samples in a salt solution. The coated and corroded surfaces' morphology, structure, and thickness are observed using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). At the same time, the element content of the material will be determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Thus, the resulting influence of Zinc Nitrate electrolyte concentration by anodising method shows which concentration value successfully formed the best Zinc Oxide (ZnO) coating layer on AZ91D Mg Alloy samples. Furthermore, an anodisation method using suitable concentrations of Zinc Nitrate electrolyte can be further developed to form an appropriate surface treatment for automotive applications in resisting corrosion in its environment.

Anhydrous LiNbO3 Synthesis and Its Application for Surface Modification of Garnet Type Li-Ion Conductors

In our work we demonstrate a facile, water-free synthesis of amorphous lithium niobate (LiNbO3) layers. Our developed method also enables the coating of substrates in inert atmosphere with simple, industrial scalable methods. As verification, a 120 nm thin LiNbO3 layer was deposited on the garnet type lithium ion conductor Li6.45Al0.05La3Zr1.6Ta0.4O12 (LLZTO) to improve its interface to lithium metal and reduce dendrite formation. The application of the thin film reduced the interface resistance between LLZTO and lithium metal to 1.02(13) Ω∙cm2 and was able to suppress dendrite formation for current densities of up to 0.5 mA/cm2. The chemical stability of the LiNbO3 thin film in contact with Li-metal was verified by SEM, XPS and ToF-SIMS.

Recent trends and innovations in biosensors development for biomarkers towards monitoring traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious health concern and a leading cause of death in all age groups, especially adults. Although the processes of prevention, lifestyle modification, accident safety, and therapeutic management of TBI are constantly evolving, the development of accurate and trustworthy procedures for diagnosing brain damage, such as detecting specific biomarkers is still in its infancy. Early detection of TBI biomarkers, especially blood biomarkers, can improve treatment approaches and significantly reduce diagnostic costs. Different routine analytical methods, including ELISA and PCR techniques, have been used to detect TBI biomarkers. These procedures are generally complex, expensive, time-consuming, and require trained personnel. In contrast, biosensing techniques have been developed precisely through addressing the aforementioned weaknesses along with offering an accessible, affordable, rapid, highly sensitive, and specific approach. This comprehensive review presents the six main TBI biomarkers (S100β, NSE, GFAP, UCHL-1, MBP, and TAU). It also focuses on the design mechanism of biosensing pathways of TBI biomarkers and nanotechnology integration methods, including the nanoparticles and nanostructures application in surface modification and improving the performance of the sensing procedures. Furthermore, through this study, the TBI-specific biosensors platform from the viewpoint of the transducer types and analysis output are evaluated. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives regarding the development of biosensors for the early diagnosis of TBI are discussed.

Characterization of helium microplasma generated in a flow focusing microfluidic device

Non-thermal microplasmas produced in a microchannel have several potential applications in analytical chemistry, environmental sensing, and surface modification of microfluidic chips for biomedical and lab-on-chip devices. This paper investigates the properties of an atmospheric pressure helium microplasma excited in a polydimethylsiloxane flow focusing microfluidic chip. The influence of input parameters such as applied voltage and gas flow rate on discharge characteristics is investigated in detail. Electron excitation and molecular rotational temperatures are determined with the Boltzmann plot technique. The rotational temperature from the N2+ emission band was calculated in the range of 348–417 K. Electron density and temperature are determined using the well-known plasma diagnostic technique of Stark broadening. The emission lines of hydrogen Balmer (Hα) and neutral helium (501, 667, and 728 nm) are selected to measure the parameters of Stark broadening. The electron density and electron temperature were found to be in the range 0.7×1016–3.39×1016 cm−3 and 10 800–12 493 K, respectively. The evaluated discharge parameters validate the non-thermal equilibrium state of the microplasma. The electrical diagnostics of plasma were performed by monitoring the signals of high voltage and current of the discharge. Moreover, the plasma modified surface (hydrophobic to hydrophilic) was verified by successfully utilizing the microchannel to form an oil-in-water micro-emulsion.

Atmospheric micro-sized cold plasma jet created by a long and ultra-flexible generator with sputtered gold thin film electrode

Atmospheric cold plasma jets with various configurations have drawn intense interests in diverse applications, such as surface modification and endoscopic applications. In this paper, a long and ultra-flexible micro-sized cold plasma jet generator is presented and its characteristics are analyzed. The generator mainly consists of two concentric silicone tubes with the inner one acting as the gas channel and the outer one acting as insulating layer of heat and high voltage. Gold thin film was sputtered on the circular surface of inner tube to work as the electrode as well as separation layer of ultraviolet radiation. Electrical, optical and thermal characteristics of this generator were investigated. Cold microplasma jet can be generated and ejected to the ambient air with the length varied from 0.1 m to 2.5 m, and it can impact on the finger without electric and heat sensation. Optical emission spectra analysis indicated that reactive species like OH and O atoms were generated in the plasma. This device exhibits ultra-flexible property which can be arbitrarily bent and plugged into complex and deep environment. Localized internal surface modification of polyvinyl chloride tube using this microplasma jet was also demonstrated and the result showed that surface wettability can be greatly improved after plasma treatment. This generator shows great potential for internal surface processing, plasma endoscopic and maskless lithography applications.