Surface Mining Reclamation Research Articles

Wetland Creation and Reforestation of Legacy Surface Mines in the Central Appalachian Region (USA): A Potential Climate-Adaptation Approach for Pond-Breeding Amphibians?

Habitat restoration and creation within human-altered landscapes can buffer the impacts of climate change on wildlife. The Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA) is a coal surface mine reclamation practice that enhances reforestation through soil decompaction and the planting of native trees. Recently, wetland creation has been coupled with FRA to increase habitat available for wildlife, including amphibians. Our objective was to evaluate the response of pond-breeding amphibians to the FRA by comparing species occupancy, richness, and abundance across two FRA age-classes (2–5-year and 8–11-year reclaimed forests), traditionally reclaimed sites that were left to naturally regenerate after mining, and in mature, unmined forests in the Monongahela National Forest (West Virginia, USA). We found that species richness and occupancy estimates did not differ across treatment types. Spotted Salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) and Eastern Newts (Notophthalmus viridescens) had the greatest estimated abundances in wetlands in the older FRA treatment. Additionally, larger wetlands had greater abundances of Eastern Newts, Wood Frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus), and Green Frogs (L. clamitans) compared to smaller wetlands. Our results suggest that wetland creation and reforestation increases the number of breeding sites and promotes microhabitat and microclimate conditions that likely maximize the resilience of pond-breeding amphibians to anticipated climate changes in the study area.

A novel method for identification of disturbance from surface coal mining using all available Landsat data in the GEE platform

Coal mining has contributed to a solid and stable global economy. Surface mining and underground mining are the principal methods for extraction of coal worldwide and given the developments in mining technology and equipment, these methods are increasingly generating more and more coal. Surface mining is also a subject that cannot be overlooked in the context of sustainable development because amongst human activities it causes comparatively strong land disturbance. Much of the damage and assessment of land and ecosystems from surface mining occurs at the site, and at the regional scale; hence access to the mining data is limited. Moreover, it is difficult for remote sensing to extract information on larger-scale areas with high precision. As a consequence, a frequency index of open coal mining can be created by merging the vast high-resolution images acquired by Landsat sensors with the spectral properties of open coal scraped from the overburden layer. Such indices and morphological principles can be used to develop strategies for quickly identifying the open coal boundaries in a vast area without mine-related information. In addition, LandTrendr may be used to reconstruct the spatial and temporal processes of surface disturbance and remediation caused by regional surface coal mining to identify surface mining disturbance and reclamation. Seven typical mining locations worldwide were selected to test and confirm the proposed method's practicality and robustness, including delivering accurate findings based on randomly testing sample points and comparing the mature data outputs. The results showed that: (1) the overall accuracy of the open coal areas identified by the OCFI (Open Coal Frequency Index) was over 85 % (range 0.85–0.96). In all study areas, the accuracy of recognizing disturbance and reclamation events was greater than 76 %. (2) The surface mining disturbed 3046.42 km2 of land and 1487.39 km2 was reclaimed in the seven mining areas investigated between 1986 and 2018, resulting in a reclamation rate of 48.82 %. The proposed method is more accurate and faster in identifying open coal locations than the current commonly used land cover datasets based on comparisons with other data products. The approach can extract surface coal mining in the absence of mining data and offer precise boundary data for mining research, which can be extremely useful for extending mining operations.

Multiscale influences on Elk (Cervus canadensis) calving site selection across a fragmented Appalachian landscape

Abstract Due to the vulnerability of neonatal ungulates, selection of a birth site can have important implications for offspring survival and thus fitness of the mother. We studied parturition site selection in cow Elk in southeastern Kentucky, United States, using a use–availability framework to evaluate the effects of landscape variables sampled at multiple spatial grains on the relative probability of use of parturition sites. We identified 81 Elk parturition sites during May–Aug 2020–2022 and fit several candidate resource selection function models using a sample of 24,314 random locations to characterize habitat availability. Using an information-theoretic approach to rank candidate models, we identified two top-performing models (cumulative ωi = 0.97), which indicated that at fine spatial grains (~10- and 30-m pixels) parturient cow Elk selected for intermediate canopy cover and lower terrain ruggedness compared to available locations. At coarse grains (250–1,000-m buffers/neighborhoods), Elk selected against vegetation greenness/biomass, for higher topographic positions, for closer proximity to major roads, and with higher solar radiation potential. We also found evidence that Elk responded positively to forest/open edge densities at coarse grains, demonstrating that calving habitat throughout the Kentucky Elk Restoration Zone is associated with heterogeneous landscapes resulting from surface mine reclamation. As a result, habitat management actions should aim to increase patchy, early successional shrub cover on gentle topography.

Abandoned mine land program: Examining public participation in decision‐making

AbstractFor centuries, coal extraction and production provided low‐cost energy that powered the American economy. Currently, an estimated 5.5 million people in the Appalachian region live within one mile of an Abandoned Mine Land (AML) site. The site remediation has been funded and promoted by the AML program under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977, and public engagement has been required. However, little is known about the AML program and the public engagement requirement for site remediation decision‐making. Relying on State and Tribal Reclamation Plans and community surveys, we investigate how AML states and tribes engage the public and which barriers limit successful participation in the AML program. We found that AML states and tribes rely heavily on traditional methods of public engagement, such as public meetings, hearings, and comment periods, rather than nontraditional methods that could include more diverse stakeholders. We also found (1) lack of information on public participation opportunities and (2) unclear project selection and awards processes as key barriers limiting public engagement. Three recommendations specific to AML program are suggested.

Plant Community, Soil and Microclimate Attributes after 70 Years of Natural Recovery of an Abandoned Limestone Quarry

With globally more than 100,000 km2 impacted by surface mining at present, and with increasing demand for surface-mined products, land managers are challenged to address landscape degradation of decommissioned quarries, especially in urban areas. In this study, soil, microclimate, and vegetation community data were collected from geomorphologically distinct locations (quarry floor, platform with pond, quarry top, highwall edge) within an urban limestone quarry abandoned 70 years ago without reclamation in central Missouri, USA. Results were compared with two nearby reference sites to bookend conditions in the abandoned quarry, including a recently closed quarry and an urban forest. Results of this study showed that abiotic mining legacies gave rise to distinct vegetation communities comprising 74 native species but also 21 non-native species. Species richness was increased near persistent edges (cliff edge, pond edge) and approached the lower range of species richness found in natural areas in the region. The results of this case study are congruent with the growing body of studies about spontaneous succession on abandoned surface mines worldwide in that spontaneous (vs. managed) revegetation can lead to species-rich, near-natural communities. This finding may justify revision of current legislation requiring technical reclamation of surface mines, especially where favorable substrate, such as limestone, is conducive to swift onset of revegetation. To improve the ecological value of such areas, the provision of funding for long-term invasive species management should also be considered.

Using POI and time series Landsat data to identify and rebuilt surface mining, vegetation disturbance and land reclamation process based on Google Earth Engine

The development of coal resources is necessary, but it has a huge negative impact on land, ecology, and the environment. With the increasing awareness of environmental protection and the requirements of related regulations, the design and practice of reclamation projects run through the mining life cycle and continue for a long time after the coal production. High-precision monitoring of mining disturbance and reclamation, quantifying the degree and time of vegetation disturbance and restoration, is of great significance to minimize the environmental effect of mining. Remote sensing, widely used as efficient monitoring tool, but there is not enough research on disturbance and reclamation monitoring taking into account large-scale areas and high temporal and spatial accuracy. Especially when mining sites remain unknown, how to distinguish the disturbance of coal mining and other human activities affecting the surface land cover has become a challenge. Therefore, this paper proposed a method to reconstruct the time series of mining disturbance and reclamation in a large area by using the POI (point of interest) and Landsat time series images using multiple buffer analysis methods. The process includes: (1) Retrieval of POI in the study area based on the public mining list using Python crawler, and buffering 100 km for preliminary extraction of potential mining areas; (2) Using spectral index mask and random forest algorithm to accurately extract the exposed coal on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform; (3) Buffering 10 km to identify the occurrence of disturbance and reclamation, using pixel-based temporal trajectory identification of LandTrendr algorithm under GEE. The method successful detect the change points of surface coal mining disturbance and reclamation in eastern Inner Mongolia of China. The results show that: (1) The method can effectively identify the extent of surface coal mining disturbance and reclamation, and the overall extraction accuracy is 81%. (2) Surface coal mining disturbance in eastern Inner Mongolia was concentrated in 2006–2011. By 2020, the total disturbed area is 627.8 km2, with an average annual disturbance of 18.5 km2, and the annual maximum disturbance to the ground reached 64.6 km2 in 2008. With the total reclaimed area being 236.3 km2, the reclamation rate is about 37.6%. This study provides a systematic solution and process for monitoring the disturbance and reclamation of surface coal mining in a large range with little known about the mines’ location. It can effectively identify the mining disturbance and reclamation process which can also be extended to other areas, providing a quantitative assessment of mining disturbance and reclamation, which can support further ecological restoration decision-making.

The Road to Blair Mountain: Saving a Mine Wars Battlefield from King Coal

The Road to Blair Mountain: Saving a Mine Wars Battlefield from King Coal

Mines to forests? Analyzing long‐term recovery trends for surface coal mines in Central Appalachia

Mountaintop removal mining, and other surface mining operations have severe, large‐scale impacts on the communities and ecosystems of Appalachia. The impact of this disturbance surpasses that of other land clearing events, such as fire or timber harvesting; mines remove both established vegetation and soil, but also alter landscape topography. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act legally mandates restoration of former mines after the end of mining activity, yet the long‐term outcomes of restoration efforts across Central Appalachia are unknown. We conducted the first regionwide analysis of the lands mined between 1985 and 2015 in Central Appalachia, and explore post‐mining ecological trajectories. Pairing mine‐footprint and remote sensing data, we characterize the vegetation trends and site health at 71,140 mine sites across Central Appalachia. We use first order autoregressive models to describe the rates of recovery, expected long‐term ecological state, and probability of recovery to reference state for former mines. We found that only 7.9% of sites recover to 95% of the forest reference condition in all remote sensing indices. Overall only 0.10% of sites have a 95% probability of reaching or exceeding reference forests in all remote sensing indices. While much of these mined lands are intentionally not being reforested, 19% of mines in Kentucky, 81% of mines in Virginia, and 46.5% of mines in West Virginia have declared forestry as the primary land use for post‐mining operations. Our results indicate that post‐mining forests are not recovering to a level that is consistent with average forest conditions in similar unmined sites.

A Methodology Combining IDEF0 and Weighted Risk Factor Analysis for the Strategic Planning of Mine Reclamation

The reclamation of lignite surface mines is a long-term commitment of high complexity. These reclamation projects consist of land use repurposing, reinstatement of landforms and landscape, remediation of polluted soils and water bodies, restoration of ecosystems, and other related activities, which are usually developed when mines enter the ultimate phase of their operational life. Nowadays, reclamation is supported by regulatory settings and legislative provisions, which motivate the affected communities to move towards a circular economy and sustainable development. This paper investigates the geoenvironmental and socioeconomic problems of reclamation and draws research questions on how the strategic planning of a reclamation project can be performed and how the relevant project risks can be investigated and managed. In turn, a prototype methodology based on experts’ judgment is suggested with a case study combining: (a) the IDEF0 (Integrated DEFinition Function) modelling technique, as a low cost and easy-to-develop tool enabling strategic planning of reclamation projects, and (b) the Weighted Risk Factor analysis (WRF) as a suitable method for effective risk analysis and response planning in post-mining frameworks. Finally, a discussion on the methodology and proposals for further research are provided.

Landscape Changes in the Southern Coalfields of West Virginia: Multi-Level Intensity Analysis and Surface Mining Transitions in the Headwaters of the Coal River from 1976 to 2016

This study analyzes land-cover transitions in the headwaters of the Big Coal River in the Central Appalachian Region of the US, from 1976 to 2016, where surface mining was found as the major driver of landscape change. The land-change analysis combined Multi-Level Intensity Analysis for two-time intervals (1976–1996, 1996–2016) with Difference Components, to differentiate suspected misclassification errors from actual changes. Two land cover classifications were obtained with segmentation analysis and machine learning algorithms from historical high-resolution aerial images and ancillary data. Intensity Analysis allowed for the inspection of transitions across five land cover (LC) classes and measure the degree of non-stationarity of land change patterns. Results found surface mining-related classes and their transitions, including the effects of reclamation processes on areas mined before the enactment of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA, 1977). Results included changes in settlement distribution, low vegetation, water bodies, and forest class transitions. The findings can be applied to infer similar land-change processes in the more extensive Appalachian region where Mountain Top Removal (MTR) operations are widespread. The overall method can be used to address similar problems and inform landscape managers with detailed data to support land use alternatives and conservation in regions that experienced intense changes and are characterized by anthropogenic disturbances and novel ecosystems.

Using the Forestry Reclamation Approach for Reclaimed Surface Mineland in the Western Gulf: Effects on Pinus taeda Seedling Growth and Survival

While land reclamation efforts of surface mines have considerably increased soil stability since the implementation of SMCRA (Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act), research suggests that resulting soil compaction hinders the productivity of forests post-mining. The Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA) was developed to improve forest health in the Appalachian region through a five-step process that minimizes soil compaction and establishes a productive forest. The FRA has not yet been tested in the western Gulf Coastal Plain (GCP). The higher clay content of some GCP soils and the dearth of coarse fragments (e.g., cobbles, stones and boulders) may affect reclamation practices and the ability of these methods to create productive forests. Compaction caused by conventional reclamation methods in the GCP has not been studied in great detail. Thus, this study attempts to provide a comparison of two reclamation methods, FRA low-compaction method used in the Appalachian region with that of conventional scraper-pan (scraper) methods in the GCP. This study used the FRA with common silvicultural practices of the western Gulf. The two hectare study site was installed with a randomized complete block design with three replicates comparing conventional scraper reclamation used in the region with that of an unmined control and the FRA-style low compaction treatment. Following soil reclamation, containerized loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings of a western Gulf provenance were hand-planted. Soil chemical and physical parameters were assessed on each treatment to determine the effect the FRA and scraper method had on resulting tree seedling growth and survival. After three growing seasons, seedlings in the FRA plots had significantly greater tree volumes than both the scraper (p = 0.0139) and the control (p = 0.0247) treatments. The FRA plots also had a 97% survival rate, while scraper plots had a survival of 86%. The FRA plots had significantly lower soil bulk densities than scraper (p = 0.0353) and control (p < 0.0001) plots which likely influenced growth and survival trends. Soil nutrients were increasingly available on the FRA and scraper plots, likely due to mixing of the soil profile when compared to the unmined control. Leaf-level water potential and gas exchange were not correlated to growth and survival and did not differ among treatments. These results suggest reclamation practices modeled after FRA methods may benefit tree growth and survival in the Western Gulf.

Best regulatory practices for deep seabed mining: Lessons learned from the U.S. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

Mining operations around the globe are responsible for significant environmental problems. These problems often stem from poor planning, inadequate regulatory standards, and a failure of regulatory oversight, particularly with respect to inspection and enforcement regimes. Mining regulators are often hamstrung, however, by inadequate information about potential impacts before operations commence. This problem is particularly daunting when considering mining on ocean floors where information about the environment is limited, and the impacts of mining are poorly understood.As the International Seabed Authority (ISA) develops a comprehensive regulatory program for deep seabed mining, they should draw on the experience gained in regulating terrestrial mining, subject, of course, to the caveat that deep seabed mining poses unique challenges that will require different and sometimes innovative regulatory solutions. In reviewing regulatory programs for terrestrial mining operations, one would be hard-pressed to find a program that is more thorough and creative than that established by the U.S. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). For reasons that are related primarily to the contentious politics surrounding coal mining regulation in the United States, SMCRA has never lived up to its promise. Nonetheless, the law remains largely intact and, despite its implementation challenges, affords a useful framework for thinking about an appropriate strategy for regulating deep seabed mining.This case study outlines the contours of the regulatory program established under SMCRA insofar as it may be relevant to regulating deep seabed mining. It acknowledges some of SMCRA’s flaws and omissions, and where appropriate, it suggests regulatory practices that go beyond SMCRA. Nonetheless, and despite SMCRA’s limitations, the program established under this law reflects modern thinking about the procedures that should be followed in managing mining activities in challenging environments, and thus offers a useful lens for designing a regulatory program for deep seabed mining.

Impact of soil stockpiling on ericoid mycorrhizal colonization and growth of velvetleaf blueberry (Vaccinium myrtilloides) and Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum)

Soil stockpiling is a common practice prior to the reclamation of surface mines. In this study, velvetleaf blueberry and Labrador tea plants were grown from seed in fresh soil, stockpiled soil (1 year), and autoclaved stockpiled soil (1 year) obtained from the Canadian boreal forest. After 7 months of growth, the root colonization intensity with ericoid mycorrhizal (ERM) fungi in both plants growing in stockpiled soil was lower compared to plants growing in the fresh soil. The diversity of ERM fungal species in roots also decreased due to soil stockpiling and Pezoloma ericae was absent from the plants growing in stockpiled soil. Changes in the ERM root colonization in plants growing in stockpiled soil were accompanied by decreases in root and shoot dry weights. Leaf chlorophyll, nitrogen, and phosphorus concentrations of velvetleaf blueberry were higher in fresh soil compared to 1‐year stockpiled soil. Plants grown in the autoclaved stockpiled soil became colonized by the thermotolerant ERM fungus Leohumicola verrucosa and showed higher root and shoot biomass compared to the nonautoclaved stockpiled soil. The results point to the importance of ERM fungi for growth of ericaceous plants, even under favorable environmental conditions and adequate fertilization, and suggest that reduced ERM colonization intensity and ERM fungal diversity in roots likely contributed to the negative effects of soil stockpiling on growth of velvetleaf blueberry and Labrador tea.

Monitoring Geomorphic and Traditional Post-Mine Reclamation using Digital Imagery: Vegetative Heterogeneity and Sampling Efficiency

Geomorphic reclamation creates variable topography and surface architecture, including rolling hillslopes and drainages. In contrast, traditional methods of reclamation result in landscapes susceptible to erosion due to steep, linear gradients. Geomorphic approaches to surface mine reclamation are relatively new, and hypotheses suggest the use of geomorphic principles in reclamation will improve vegetation outcomes relative to traditional methods. Topographic variability created by geomorphic reclamation likely results in more environmental heterogeneity, which should correlate with greater plant diversity. We examined revegetation outcomes of traditional and geomorphic reclamation on two reclaimed surface mines in Wyoming using nadir image sampling. Functional group diversity and measures of cover were compared between reclamation methods and undisturbed rangeland. Geomorphic reclamation supported greater total richness and greater native functional group richness relative to traditional reclamation. Native species cover on geomorphic reclamation, particularly for native perennial grasses, was either similar to undisturbed rangeland or greater than undisturbed rangeland and traditional reclamation. Reclamation shrub cover differed significantly from undisturbed sites, but was greater in geomorphic treatments. Results of nadir image analysis are compared to line-point intercept data from the same locations and outcomes are discussed in light of different reclamation techniques and sampling methods. Significant differences in cover categories were observed between nadir image and line-point intercept methods, however both methods revealed similar patterns between study sites.

Mapping Annual Land Disturbance and Reclamation in a Surface Coal Mining Region Using Google Earth Engine and the LandTrendr Algorithm: A Case Study of the Shengli Coalfield in Inner Mongolia, China

The development and utilization of mining resources are basic requirements for social and economic development. Both open-pit mining and underground mining have impacts on land, ecology, and the environment. Of these, open-pit mining is considered to have the greatest impact due to the drastic changes wrought on the original landform and the disturbance to vegetation. As awareness of environmental protection has grown, land reclamation has been included in the mining process. In this study, we used the Shengli Coalfield in the eastern steppe region of Inner Mongolia to demonstrate a mining and reclamation monitoring process. We combined the Google Earth Engine platform with time series Landsat images and the LandTrendr algorithm to identify and monitor mining disturbances to grassland and land reclamation in open-pit mining areas of the coalfield between 2003 and 2019. Pixel-based trajectories were used to reconstruct the temporal evolution of vegetation, and sequential Landsat archive data were used to achieve accurate measures of disturbances to vegetation. The results show that: (1) the proposed method can be used to determine the years in which vegetation disturbance and recovery occurred with accuracies of 86.53% and 78.57%, respectively; (2) mining in the Shengli mining area resulted in the conversion of 89.98 km2 of land from grassland, water, etc., to barren earth, and only 23.54 km2 was reclaimed, for a reclamation rate of 26.16%; and (3) the method proposed in this paper can achieve fast, efficient identification of surface mining land disturbances and reclamation, and has the potential to be applied to other similar areas.

Hardwood Species Show Wide Variability in Response to Silviculture during Reclamation of Coal Mine Sites

Coal is a significant energy source for the United States, and reclamation of surface mined lands is required under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. Reforestation of mined lands is challenging due to soil substrate properties including soil compaction, herbaceous competition, and animal browse, necessitating silvicultural treatments to help overcome such limiting factors. We investigated the field performance of black walnut (Juglans nigra L.), northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), and swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor Willd.) planted on two mine reclamation sites in southern Indiana, USA, and evaluated the interactions of nursery stocktypes (container and bareroot), herbicide application, and tree shelters. Two-year survival averaged 80% across all species and stocktypes. Container stocktype had greater relative height and diameter growth (i.e., relative to initial size at planting), whereas bareroot had greater absolute height and diameter growth corresponding to initial stocktype differences. Shelter use increased height growth and reduced diameter growth across both stocktypes. Swamp white oak (Q. bicolor) had the highest survival rate and field performance regardless of silvicultural treatment, whereas red oak (Q. rubra) and black walnut (J. nigra) showed strong early regeneration responses to silvicultural treatments. Container seedlings showed promise as an alternative to bareroot seedlings to promote early growth on mine reclamation sites. Species-specific responses documented here indicate the need to consider the ecology and stress resistance of target species in developing cost-effective silvicultural prescriptions.

Opportunistic wetland formation on reconstructed landforms in a sub-humid climate: influence of site and landscape-scale factors

Initiation of wetland features is integral to sustaining landscape eco-hydrological function and meeting defined goals in surface mine reclamation. Within the sub humid climate of the Athabasca Oil Sands, Canada, the water generation mechanisms (external water sources, internal feedback mechanisms) that enable wetlands to form opportunistically on recently reconstructed landscapes are currently unknown, restricting the flexibility in mine closure planning. To address this knowledge gap, we interpret site and local physical characteristics of opportunistic wetlands within the Athabasca Oil Sands through a synoptic survey. Wetlands formed in ~ 8% of the random survey transect areas designed and planted for forestlands. Wetlands had vegetation structures characteristic of woody Salix spp. swamps and narrow-leaved Carex spp. marsh wetland types, with minor coverage of open water marshes. Wetlands formed opportunistically over a range of slopes, aspects and topographic positions, across contrasting fine and coarse-textured landforms. However, different wetland establishment and maintenance controls exist on fine and coarse-textured landforms. On coarse-textured landforms with large groundwater transmissivity, wetland formation was influenced by landscape-scale factors; wetlands were restricted to the toes of slopes and areas intersecting groundwater. On fine-textured constructed landforms, small and large wetlands occurred on lower landscape elevations with the potential for the external (cumulative) water sources, and in hydrologically isolated locations with little potential for runoff contribution from adjacent forestlands (saturation and wetland formation through internal feedback mechanisms). Regardless of landscape position, wetlands formed on flat areas and in shallow inward draining endorheic pans with clay rich soils where low water storage potential promotes frequent surface saturation. These findings have important implications in landscape reclamation design, suggesting that passive techniques that support internal feedback mechanisms may offer a more cost effective reclamation approach compared to more active, expensive techniques that aim to develop wetlands with external water sources.

Exploring the Policy Implications of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

This paper explores how policy structure, institutions, and political climate impact the ability of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) to ensure the reclamation of surface coal mines. We conduct a policy review that traces the impacts of the three parts of SMCRA; Reclamation Standards, Reclamation Bonding Requirements, and the Abandoned Mine Land fund. We examine the implications the act and its approach have for the mining industry and their ability to reclaim mining areas. We find that each of the three parts of SMCRA’s approach face substantial problems in their implementation. Though largely a positive force for internalizing the environmental costs of surface mining, those issues commonly elucidated in the public choice literature reduce the efficacy of the policy approach and call into question the act’s ability to ensure reclamation occurs. Both in the structure of the bonding requirements and in the regulatory structure created by the act, misaligned incentives sometimes hamper effective reclamation. Further, the funds created under SMCRA to reclaim and restore mined lands have often been directed towards projects that are politically expedient for politicians instead of those that would best serve the fund’s original reclamation purpose. After revealing these problems and putting them in the context of the public choice literature, we suggest updates to the current policy that would align reclamation incentives and better ensure that the reclamation of surface mines occurs. We emphasize the cooperative elements of SMCRA and suggest how other countries, especially those without major existing frameworks for handling reclamation, can emulate the successes of SMCRA while avoiding its implementations snags.

The Political Economy of Abandoned Mine Land Fund Disbursements

What factors determine federal spending on environmental goods? Is severity of the hazard the only metric of consideration, or do other factors play a vital role in explaining spending? This paper seeks to answer this question and to identify disbursement patterns within the context of the Abandoned Mine Land Fund (AMLF) program, a fund created as an aspect of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. We explore whether political factors, as well as environmental and health factors, have an explanatory role in disbursement of AMLF monies. The political factors examined include environmental interest group influence and legislator preferences and/or pressures to fund sites in their home states or districts. The results found here suggest that there exists a mix of public and private interests present in AMLF disbursement decisions during the overall span of the program, and that political influences have gained strength in the decision-making calculus in response to changes in the funding structure of the AMLF.

Long‐Term Change of Fish Communities in a Polluted Watershed: Does Cleaner Water “Act” on Fishes?

AbstractPollution is a threat to lotic fishes that enter streams via point source (PS) and nonpoint source (NPS) pathways. The Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 and the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977 reduced PS pollution in the United States, but little information is available concerning the response of fish communities to this legislation. The objectives of this research were to quantify the responses of fishes to the CWA and SMCRA in the Cow Creek watershed of southeastern Kansas, a wadeable stream network that experienced large reductions in PS pollution. Responses were quantified by measuring changes in site occupancy, relative abundance, and species richness across 25 sites sampled in 1963 and again in 2017. Responses were compared among fishes that were intolerant, moderately intolerant, moderately tolerant, and tolerant of pollution using an analysis of deviance coupled with general linear hypothesis testing. We predicted that intolerant fishes would exhibit the most dramatic increases in distribution and abundance and that these changes would be most evident in streams that were directly receiving PS pollution in 1963. However, our predictions were not met, as species tolerant of pollution exhibited greater occupancy, relative abundance, and richness than did intolerant fishes, regardless of time period. Contemporary pH and substrate composition were also quantified and revealed that most streams had recovered from historical acid mine drainage but were dominated by fine substrates. We hypothesized that the limited responses exhibited by intolerant fishes were at least partially attributable to NPS pollution (i.e., sedimentation) resulting from agriculture, which was the dominant land use both historically and currently. We conclude that reductions in both NPS pollution coupled with historical reductions in PS pollution may be necessary to increase the prevalence of intolerant fishes. These management actions may have conservation implications as many intolerant fishes are also imperiled.