Abstract
Coal is a significant energy source for the United States, and reclamation of surface mined lands is required under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. Reforestation of mined lands is challenging due to soil substrate properties including soil compaction, herbaceous competition, and animal browse, necessitating silvicultural treatments to help overcome such limiting factors. We investigated the field performance of black walnut (Juglans nigra L.), northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), and swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor Willd.) planted on two mine reclamation sites in southern Indiana, USA, and evaluated the interactions of nursery stocktypes (container and bareroot), herbicide application, and tree shelters. Two-year survival averaged 80% across all species and stocktypes. Container stocktype had greater relative height and diameter growth (i.e., relative to initial size at planting), whereas bareroot had greater absolute height and diameter growth corresponding to initial stocktype differences. Shelter use increased height growth and reduced diameter growth across both stocktypes. Swamp white oak (Q. bicolor) had the highest survival rate and field performance regardless of silvicultural treatment, whereas red oak (Q. rubra) and black walnut (J. nigra) showed strong early regeneration responses to silvicultural treatments. Container seedlings showed promise as an alternative to bareroot seedlings to promote early growth on mine reclamation sites. Species-specific responses documented here indicate the need to consider the ecology and stress resistance of target species in developing cost-effective silvicultural prescriptions.
Highlights
In 2015, coal accounted for 28% of the United States’ total primary energy production [1], the third most important fossil fuel source
Establishment of hardwood tree seedlings on mine reclamation sites is challenging for land managers, and management prescriptions are unique to individual sites
Swamp white oak was the most successful species planted in this experiment as far as survival and growth
Summary
In 2015, coal accounted for 28% of the United States’ total primary energy production [1], the third most important fossil fuel source. Surface mining is the preferred removal method when the coal deposit, or seam, is within 60 m of the surface, due to lower economic costs and higher resource recovery compared to underground mining [2]. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977 (Public law 95-87) was enacted to address concerns regarding environmental problems associated with coal mining [3]. According to SMCRA, mining is considered a temporary land use; after surface mining operations are complete, land must be returned to a condition capable of supporting its pre-mining land cover [4]. Mine operators are required to submit a bond to cover the costs of reclaiming the site. Bond release occurs only if the land, at the end of a set time period (e.g., 5 years), meets the stated environmental conditions [4]
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