Surface Learning Approach Research Articles

Correlation Between Learning Approach and Students Objective-Structured Clinical Examination Passing Rate.

Context: In medical school, learning approach used by students while preparing for assessment can vary from one individual to another. Students may conduct deep or either surface learning approach when studying for an examination. Objective-structured clinical examination (OSCE) is one of assessments for medical students’ learning outcome which may require different learning approach from other written examinations. Different types of learning approach thus may affect the students’ OSCE outcome. Aims: To analyze correlation between learning approach used by medical students and OSCE passing rate. Settings and Design: A cross-sectional study conducted in February 2018 at the Faculty of Medicine, Swadaya Gunung Jati University. Methods and Material: Learning approach of 146 medical students was assessed using Revised Study Process Questionnaire 2 Factors (R-SPQ-2F). Data of OSCE passing rate was obtained from the academic section of Faculty of Medicine, Swadaya Gunung Jati University. Rank Spearman test was used to analyze the correlation between learning approach and OSCE passing rate. Results: Eighty-three students out of 146 (56,8%) ran into deep approach, while 63 students (43.2%) applied surface approach. Rank Spearman analysis showed that learning approach is significantly correlated with students’ OSCE passing rate (p = 0.001; CI 95%). Conclusion: Deep learning approach resulted in higher OSCE passing rate.

Most surface learning in the third year: Dental student learning approaches and implications for curriculum and assessment.

Dental schools seek to educate students to become inclined toward self-directed, lifelong learning, an important mindset for healthcare professionals that may be linked to deep versus surface learning approaches. Students using a deep learning approach are more intrinsically motivated and actively engage in higher-order thinking, while those using a surface learning approach are more extrinsically motivated and aim for passive learning. Because student learning approaches can be influenced by a wide variety of learning experiences, we sought to understand how student approaches to learning differ by year in dental school and are related to academic achievement. A total of 244 students in a 4-year dental school program in South Korea voluntarily participated in this study. We collected data on school year and academic achievement, and approaches to learning of participants using the validated Study Processes Questionnaire to assess learning approach, which included the constructs of deep motive, deep strategy, surface motive, and surface strategy. We conducted 3 sets of statistical analyses and found that most students adopted a deep approach to learning (DAL) in their first and second years (Y1 and Y2), with third-year students (Y3) showing heavy dependence on a surface approach to learning (SAL) and sharp drops in intrinsic motives. Student approaches to learning were not significantly related to academic achievement. In the first 2 years of dental school, students tended to adopt a DAL, and viewed their learning as personal growth and their profession as necessitating deep intellectual inquiry. In the third year, the change from a DAL to a SAL coincided with entry to clinical training. The lack of integration of biomedical science (Y1 and Y2) and clinical science (Y3 and Y4), and increased stress in the initial clinical context may account for this difference. The poor correlation between a DAL and high achievement may indicate a need for change in assessment methods. This study hopes to stimulate reflection regarding student learning approaches and educational efforts that prepare future dentists for lifelong learning.

THE PREPARATION OF FUTURE TEACHERS: MODERN APPROACHES TO LEARNING

The article is devoted to the issue of approaches to learning used by prospective teachers. The key difference between two main approaches to learning — deep and surface — lies in the intention or absence of intention to understand the material. Deep approach to learning is likely to result in a high level of understanding and better learning outcomes while surface approach leads to ineffective learning. Understanding students’ approaches to learning helps adjust teaching strategies for more effective learning. The purpose of the article is to identify the approaches to learning used by prospective teachers and consider the implications for teacher trainers. The article reports findings of a survey study into the approaches to learning used by prospective teachers of the Ukrainian language and literature mastering English as a specialism at a Ukrainian university. The main research tool was a questionnaire consisting of twenty statements. Ten statements concerning deep approach include such aspects as deep approach per se, relating ideas, use of evidence, intrinsic motivation. The other ten statements relate to surface approach and include such subscales as surface approach proper, syllabus boundness, fear of failure, extrinsic motivation. The respondents were asked to express how much they agreed with the statements using Likert scale. The data were analysed to find out mean scores and standard deviation. The findings demonstrate that students employ both approaches almost equally intensely: the mean scores of the Deep Learning Approach and the Surface Learning Approach scales are 3.64 and 3.34 correspondingly. However, according to the evaluation criteria the figures fall into different categories: deep approach has a high level of prevalence while surface approach has a moderate one. Basing on the obtained results, the authors suggest that teacher trainers should pay more attention to promoting deep learning approach through applying effective instructional strategies which improve the quality of learning; fostering students’ personal interest in learning; changing the focus of the assessment system from reproducing to understanding

What is the Relationship Between Teaching Approaches of Instructors and Learning Approaches of Teacher Candidates?

The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between the way that teacher candidates perceive the teaching approaches used by the instructors at the faculty of education and the learning approaches they prefer. The study group of this research was composed of 525 students from different departments of the faculty of education to determine the relationship between the teaching approaches and the learning approaches. As a result of the research, it was determined that the means of Information Transfer-Teacher - Focused (IT-TF) approach were higher than Conceptual Change-Student-Focused (CC-SF) scores across university departments and grade levels. It was also determined that the means of the deep and strategic learning approach across university departments, genders and grade levels were higher than the mean scores of the surface learning approach. In addition, there was a strong, positive and significant relationship between the mean score of IT-TF and the mean score of CC-SF, whereas it was found that there was a small, positive and significant relationship between the mean scores of IT-TF and CC-SF and DLA and SLA.

Students’ perceptions of assessment quality related to their learning approaches and learning outcomes

This study aims to provide more insight into how students’ perceptions of assessment quality are related to their learning approaches and learning outcomes. Six variables associated with the construct of students’ perceptions of assessment quality are distinguished: 1) effects of assessment on learning, 2) fairness of assessment, 3) conditions of assessment, 4) interpretation of test scores, 5) authenticity of assessment, and 6) credibility of assessment. 204 higher education students completed the Students’ Perceptions of Assessment Quality Questionnaire (SPAQQ), and the Approaches to Learning and Studying Inventory (ALSI), and the students’ learning outcomes (grades) were obtained. Firstly, results indicate that the students’ perceptions of the effects of assessment on learning are positively related to the students’ deep learning approach and the strategic learning approach and negatively related to the surface learning approach. Secondly, the students’ perceptions of the conditions of assessment are positively related to their learning outcomes of the assessments.

Construct and predictive validity of the Strength of Motivation for Medical School-Revised (SMMS-R) questionnaire: a French validation study

Motivation is a major indicator of students' learning behaviors. Therefore, researchers require consistent and valid instruments to assess students' motivation. Consequently, motivation has been an important topic in medical education research for the last decade. The present study evaluated the construct and predictive validities of the French version of the Strength of Motivation for Medical School-Revised questionnaire (SMMS-R-FR). Our sample comprised 372 students at three French-speaking medical schools, who filled in the SMMS-R-FR and the Revised two-factor Study Process Questionnaire (R2-SPQ). Results confirmed the three-factor structure of the original SMMS-R questionnaire. Reliabilities were good for the Total Strength of Motivation scale, moderate for the Willingness to Sacrifice and Readiness to Start subscales, and poor (but still acceptable) for the Persistence subscale. Both Total Strength of Motivation and Readiness to Start positively predicted a deep learning approach and negatively predicted a surface learning approach, while Willingness to Sacrifice positively predicted a deep learning approach and Persistence negatively predicted a surface learning approach. Our results both support the SMMS-R- FR's suitability as a tool for measuring motivation in medical students, and suggest that it could be used to guide the development of educational interventions to strengthen motivation.

Study Approaches in Higher Education Mathematics: Investigating the Statistical Behaviour of an Instrument Translated into Norwegian

The revised two-factor study process questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) has widely been considered valid and reliable in many contexts for measuring students’ learning approaches. However, its cultural specificity has generated considerable discussion, with inconclusive results when translated to different languages. This paper provides more insights into the construct validity of a Norwegian version of this instrument. The R-SPQ-2F is composed of ten items designed to expose deep learning approaches and 10 items designed to expose surface learning approaches. A survey research design involving a sample of 253 first year university students in a mathematics course was adopted. Ten hypothesized models were compared using a series of confirmatory factor analyses following the model proposals reported in the literature. A weighted least square mean and variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimator was used to enhance model parameter estimations under multiple violations of assumptions inherent in ordinal data. The results favored a two first-order factor model with ten items measuring the deep approach and nine items measuring the surface approach including a deletion of one item from this instrument. The findings of this study provide empirical evidence for the cultural specificity of the instrument that is consistent with the literature. The R-SPQ-2F is therefore recommended to assess students’ approaches to learning, and further studies into its cultural specificity are recommended.

Testing anxiety in undergraduate medical students and its correlation with different learning approaches.

ObjectivesUndergraduate medical students experience a considerable amount of stress and anxiety due to frequent exams. The goal of the present study was to examine the development of exam related anxiety and to test for a correlation between anxiety and learning approaches.MethodsA whole class of 212 medical students was invited to participate in the study. During their first term, trait anxiety and learning approaches were assessed by use of the state-trait-anxiety inventory (STAI-T) and the approaches-and-study-skills-inventory-for-students (ASSIST), respectively. Acute state anxiety was assessed twice in the course of the second term. To that extent, the STAI-S in combination with measuring salivary cortisol were employed immediately before two oral anatomy exams.ResultsOur most important results were that a surface learning approach correlated significantly with anxiety as a trait and that students with a predominantly strategic approach to learning were the least anxious yet academically most successful.ConclusionAs surface learners are at risk of being academically less successful and because anxiety is a prerequisite for burn-out, we suggest that medical faculties place particular emphasis on conveying strategies for both, coping with stress and successful learning.

Students' perceptions of problem-based learning tutors, topics, and examinations and their hindrance or promotion of deep and surface learning: A mixed-methods study

Background: In problem-based learning (PBL) curricula implemented around the world, it is assumed that students adopt a deep learning approach to studying and aim to gain a profound understanding of the subjects being studied. However, it is not clear which PBL components initiate or deter deep learning and to what extent this happens and why. Aim: This study explored to which extent students used a deep or surface learning approach in PBL and whether this differs across years. We also investigated which PBL components students perceived to be hindrances to deep or surface learning. Methods: The study took place at Sulaiman Al Rajhi Medical College, Qassim, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A mixed-methods approach was applied. A validated questionnaire and semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted sequentially. Results: First-, second-, and third-year students reported, in scale 1–5, for deep learning scores, respectively, with mean (M) = 3.55, M = 3.41, and M = 3.55. First-, second-, and third-year students reported, in scale 1–5, for surface learning scores, respectively, with M = 2.88, M = 2.78, and M = 2.89. The differences for both deep and surface learning across the years were statistically nonsignificant. According to students, they study deeply on main learning objectives and superficially on minor objectives as indicated by tutors, they are stimulated toward deep learning through interesting topics during self-study, and examinations drive them toward deep or surface learning depending on the question format and necessity to pass. Conclusions: The results of this study confirm that students' perceptions of PBL components affect their approaches to deep and surface learning. These effects are not entirely negative or positive. Students seem to frequently employ a deep learning approach in PBL throughout the 3 years. These conclusions will allow program administrators/educationalists to constructively design curricula around the perceptions of learners of PBL tutors, topics, and examinations.

The effect of learning approaches on prospective chemistry teachers' self-regulated learning skills: The survey research

The purpose of this research was to examine the effect of the learning approaches on prospective chemistry teachers' self-regulated learning skills. 92 prospective chemistry teachers from the Department of Chemistry Education at one of the public university in Turkey participated in the research. “The Study Process Questionnaire” and “Self-regulated Learning Skills Scale” were used as the data collection tools. It was consequently found that 59.8 % of prospective chemistry teachers adopted deep learning approach, 40.2% of them adopted surface learning approach and their self-regulated learning skills scale scores for planning and goal setting scores differed significantly according to their learning approaches. Furthermore, it was determined that self-regulated learning skills mean score of prospective teachers' who adopted deep approach are higher than mean score of prospective teachers' who adopted surface approach but their self-regulated learning skills total scores did not differ significantly according to their learning approaches.

Associations between motivational factors for studying medicine, learning approaches and empathy among medical school candidates.

Previous research highlighted associations between students' motivation for medical studies and their learning approaches on the one hand and empathy on the other. Internal motivational factors for studying medicine (e.g., care for patients, save lives) coupled with a deep approach to learning have been positively related to empathy in contrast to external motivational factors (e.g., future earning potential, prestige) and surface learning. However, assessments of these assumptions among medical school candidates are scarce. This study examined the relationship between different motivational factors and empathy among students enrolled in a selection year in medicineby testing the mediating role of learning approaches. A sample of 572 candidates for medical studies answered a self-reported questionnaire half way through their selection year. Measures included internal and external motivational factors for studying medicine, deep and surface learning approaches and empathy. Path-analysis tested the mediation effects of deep and surface approaches to learning on the relationship of internal and external motivational factors with empathy. The deep learning approach partially mediated the significant positive association between internal motivational factors and empathy, while the surface learning approach fully mediated the significant negative association between external motivational factors and empathy. These results suggest that learning approaches could be a pathway by which internal and external motives for studying medicine are related to empathy among medical school candidates. Pedagogical strategies and educational environments accounting for individual differences in motivation and learning may contribute to training students to become professional and caring doctors in the future.

Are surface and deep learning approaches associated with study patterns and choices among medical students? A cross-sectional study.

Different approaches to learning can exert considerable influence on the teaching-learning process in medical education. This study aimed to investigate the association of surface and deep learning with study patterns, preferred type of assessment, practices of cheating and quality of sleep among medical students. Cross-sectional study on medical students enrolled in all six years of a medical school in Juiz de Fora, Brazil. Questionnaires were applied to evaluate learning approaches (R-SPQ-2F), study patterns, sources and choices, and quality of sleep. Students' learning approaches (deep or surface) were assessed in relation to their study patterns, study resources, quality of sleep and whether they cheated in tests. Among the 710 students included, 43% frequently studied on the night before an exam, 65% had used psychostimulants to study and more than 46% had cheated in an exam. Regarding quality of sleep, most students (53.4%) reported that their quality of sleep was poor, such that 45.3% slept for fewer than five hours before an exam. Those who studied just prior to an exam, used class summaries, preferred multiple-choice questions and cheated during the test had a more surface-learning approach. On the other hand, those who read books, preferred practical exams and slept better had a deeper approach. The type of learning approach was associated with study patterns and choices among medical students. Educators need to be attentive to the type of learning their students use and think of measures that impact teaching and assessment methods.

Investigating Video Viewing Behaviors of Students with Different Learning Approaches Using Video Analytics

The deep and surface learning approaches are closely related to the students' interaction with learning content and learning outcomes. While students with a surface approach have a tendency to acquire knowledge without questioning and to try to pass courses with minimum effort, students with a deep learning approach tend to use more skills such as problem-solving, questioning, and research. Studies show that learning approaches of students can change depending on subject, task and time. Therefore, it is important to identify students with a surface learning approach in online learning environments and to plan interventions that encourage them to use deep learning approaches. In this study, video viewing behaviors of students with deep and surface learning approaches are analyzed using video analytics. Video viewing patterns of students with different learning approaches are also compared. For this purpose, students (N=31) are asked to study a 10-minutes-long video material related to Computer Hardware course. Video interactions in this process were also recorded using video player developed by the authors. At the end of the lab session, students were asked to fill in the Learning Approach Scale by taking into account their learning approaches to the course. As a result of the study, it was observed that the students with surface approach made a statistically significant forward seek over to the students used deep learning approach while watching the video. Moreover, an investigation on the time series graphs of two groups revealed that surface learners watched the video more linearly and had fewer interactions with it. These interaction data can be modeled with machine learning techniques to predict students with surface approach and can be used to identify design problems in video materials.

Issues in teaching and learning for older adults in Hong Kong and Australia

ABSTRACTThere has not been ample recent research on teaching older adults. However, as described below, there is mounting research in how and why older adults want to learn. This brief discussion is derived from work undertaken for a workshop in Hong Kong on issues in teaching older adults. It combines recent research on learning and teaching in higher education as it applies to older adults. The paper addresses: learning and ageing, learning choices, an information processing view of learning, deep and surface learning, teaching and learning approaches, formal, non-formal and informal learning, teaching roles, evaluation, and technology. Some sections are exemplified with information from teaching older adults in Australia and Hong Kong

Modelo instrutivo 4C/ID: Efeitos sobre as abordagens à aprendizagem de alunos do 9º ano

Este artigo tem como principal objetivo apresentar os resultados de uma investigação sobre o efeito da utilização de um ambiente de aprendizagem digital, destinado ao ensino dos circuitos elétricos e construído com base no modelo de Desenho Instrutivo de Quatro Componentes (4C/ID), sobre o tipo de abordagem à aprendizagem adotada por alunos do 9ºano.Constituímos dois grupos: um experimental (nE=76), no qual o tema circuitos elétricos foi ensinado com o ambiente digital (estratégia centrada no aluno) e um grupo de controlo (nC=49), no qual o tema circuitos elétricos foi ensinado com base num método convencional (estratégia centrada no professor). Para caracterizar o tipo de abordagem à aprendizagem adotado pelos alunos usámos o Inventário de Processos de Estudo (IPE) validado para várias amostras da população estudantil portuguesa.Os resultados revelaram: (1) equivalência no pré-teste entre os dois grupos ao nível das variáveis abordagens superficial e profunda; (2) no pós-teste, para o grupo experimental, ocorreu uma diminuição do uso da abordagem superficial e um aumento da pontuação para a variável abordagem profunda, não havendo alterações significativas nestas variáveis no grupo de controlo. A análise dos dados qualitativos da descrição do processo experimental, feita com base em observação das aulas e em entrevistas aos professores, permitiu-nos explicitar algumas características do ambiente de aprendizagem digital, tornando mais clara a interpretação dos resultados. O carácter multidimensional do constructo “abordagem à aprendizagem” evidenciou-se pelos valores de magnitude de efeito, que se mostraram globalmente baixos.

The effects of interaction of students’ learning approach and their gender to the achievement of Chemistry subject using problem-based learning (PBL) methods via Facebook

Pengaruh media sosial seperti Facebook dalam pelbagai bidang termasuk bidang pendidikan tidak dapat dinafikan lagi. Objektif utama kajian adalah mengkaji kesan interaksi pendekatan pembelajaran dan faktor jantina pelajar ke atas pencapaian subjek kimia secara kaedah pembelajaran berasaskan masalah (problem based learning) melalui Facebook. Sampel kajian terdiri daripada 120 orang pelajar Kolej MARA yang telah dipilih secara rawak untuk menjalani rawatan PBL via Facebook selama sembilan minggu. Kajian kuantitatif ini menggunakan reka bentuk eksperimen secara faktorial 2x2. Kesan utama yang dikaji adalah pendekatan pembelajaran (permukaan dan mendalam) dan faktor jantina (lelaki dan perempuan) serta interaksi kedua-duanya ke atas pencapaian dalam peperiksaan akhir subjek kimia. Hasil analisis deskriptif menunjukkan berlakunya peralihan pendekatan pembelajaran pelajar daripada pendekatan permukaan kepada pendekatan mendalam selepas menjalani rawatan PBL via Facebook. Hasil ujian Anova Dua-Hala pula menunjukkan bahawa kesan utama pendekatan pembelajaran terhadap pemboleh ubah bersandar pencapaian pelajar adalah signifikan merentasi jantina pelajar. Walau bagaimanapun, kesan utama jantina dan kesan interaksi antara kedua-dua pemboleh ubah bebas terhadap pencapaian pelajar adalah tidak signifikan. Hasil kajian ini penting kerana Kaedah PBL via Facebook didapati berupaya mendorong peralihan amalan pendekatan pembelajaran pelajar daripada pendekatan pembelajaran permukaan kepada pendekatan pembelajaran mendalam. Pendekatan pembelajaran mendalam seterusnya membolehkan pelajar untuk memperoleh pencapaian akademik yang lebih baik.

Links between Adolescents' Deep and Surface Learning Approaches, Problematic Internet Use, and Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)

This study was aimed at exploring links between adolescents' deep and surface approaches to learning, Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), and Problematic Internet Use (PIU) by using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The analysis corroborated the postulated positive links between surface learning, FoMO, and PIU. Moreover, the FoMO construct represented a complimentary mediation between the surface learning approach and PIU constructs. This study may lead to a plausible inference according to which both FoMO and surface learning share a common core characteristic of decreased levels of self-regulation that might lead to PIU. Having students acquire and practice skills of self-regulation might help them control their levels of FoMO, and consequently their PIU at schools or out-of-school learning environments.

Investigation of the Predictive Power of Academic Achievement, Learning Approaches and Self-Regulatory Learning Skills on University Entrance Exam Scores Using Path Analysis

A good analysis of the success factors in the university entrance exam, which is an important step for academiccareers of students, is believed to help them manage this process. Properties such as self-regulation and learningapproaches adopted by students undoubtedly influence their academic achievement as well as their success inuniversity entrance exams. However, it is not exactly known how the direct and indirect relations between thesevariables are, and which variable has more effect on success. This research aims to determine the extent to whichuniversity entrance exam score as dependant variable; and academic achievement, deep, surface and strategiclearning approaches, four sub-dimensions of self-regulatory learning skills scale as independent variables to predictuniversity entrance exam score directly and indirectly; to this end, a path model was developed. Within the scope ofthe research, the data obtained from 445 students in the 4th class of the state-affiliated high schools in the 2016-2017academic year were used. As a result of the research, the most important factor affecting the success of universityentrance exam was found to be diploma grade; while diploma grades raise by using deep learning approaches, theyfall by using surface learning approaches. It was detected that the use of the strategic learning approach reducesuniversity entrance exam scores.

Older women, deeper learning, and greater satisfaction at university: Age and gender predict university students’ learning approach and degree satisfaction.

The present study explored the interactive effect of age and gender in predicting surface and deep learning approaches. It also investigated how these variables related to degree satisfaction. Participants were 983 undergraduate students at a large public Australian university. They completed a research survey either online or on paper. Consistent with previous research, age was a positive predictor of both surface and deep learning. However, gender moderated this age effect in the case of deep learning: Age predicted deep learning more strongly among women and not among men. Furthermore, age positively predicted degree satisfaction among women but not among men, and deep learning mediated this moderation effect. Hence, older female students showed the greatest deep learning in the present sample, and this effect explained their greater satisfaction with their degree. The implications of these findings for pedagogical practices and institutional policy are considered

Exploring student learning approaches on an initial teacher education programme: A comparison of mature learners and direct entry third-level students

This article compares the learning approaches of students on an initial teacher education programme. Using a mixed method approach, the study examines differences between mature learners and direct entry students, across the domains of deep, strategic and surface learning approaches. Following the quantitative phase, group interviews were conducted to gain additional insights into the factors, which impacted learning approach. Significant differences were evident between both cohorts. The key categories that contributed to learning approach included; motivation to learn, collaborative and competitive learning, prior educational experiences and school placement. The findings provide insights into the diversity of student cohorts.