Surface-enhanced Raman Scattering Reporter Research Articles

Optoplasmonic Effects in Highly Curved Surfaces for Catalysis, Photothermal Heating, and SERS.

Surface curvature can be used to focus light and alter optical processes. Here, we show that curved surfaces (spheres, cylinders, and cones) with a radius of around 5 μm lead to maximal optoplasmonic properties including surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), photocatalysis, and photothermal processes. Glass microspheres, microfibers, pulled fibers, and control flat substrates were functionalized with well-dispersed and dense arrays of 45 nm Au NP using polystyrene-block-poly-4-vinylpyridine (PS-b-P4VP) and chemically modified with 4-mercaptobenzoic acid (4-MBA, SERS reporter), 4-nitrobenzenethiol (4-NBT, reactive to plasmonic catalysis), or 4-fluorophenyl isocyanide (FPIC, photothermal reporter). The various curved substrates enhanced the plasmonic properties by focusing the light in a photonic nanojet and providing a directional antenna to increase the collection efficacy of SERS photons. The optoplasmonic effects led to an increase of up to 1 order of magnitude of the SERS response, up to 5 times the photocatalytic conversion of 4-NBT to 4,4'-dimercaptoazobenzene when the diameter of the curved surfaces was about 5 μm and a small increase in photothermal effects. Taken together, the results provide evidence that curvature enhances plasmonic properties and that its effect is maximal for spherical objects around a few micrometers in diameter, in agreement with a theoretical framework based on geometrical optics. These enhanced plasmonic effects and the stationary-phase-like plasmonic substrates pave the way to the next generation of sensors, plasmonic photocatalysts, and photothermal devices.

Nanoconjugates of Ag/Au/Carbon Nanotube for Alkyne-Meditated Ratiometric SERS Imaging of Hypoxia in Hepatic Ischemia.

We report a ratiometric surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanoprobe for imaging hypoxic living cells or tissues, using azo-alkynes assembled on a single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) surface-functionalized with Ag/Au alloy nanoparticles (SWCNT/Ag/AuNPs). Under a hypoxic condition, azobenzene derivatives preassembled on the surface of the nanostructures are reduced stepwise by various reductases and eventually removed from the surface of the SWCNT/Ag/AuNPs, resulting in the loss of characteristic alkyne Raman bands at 2207 cm-1. Using 2D-band of SWCNTs at 2578 cm-1 as the internal standard, we are able to determine the hypoxia level based on the ratio of two peak intensities ( I2578/ I2207) as demonstrated by the successful detection in different cell lines and rat liver tissue samples derived from hepatic ischemia surgery. By combining the outstanding anti-interference property of alkynes as SERS reporters and the distinct Raman responses of alkynes and SWCNTs in complex systems, this novel ratiometric SERS strategy holds promise in becoming a very useful tool for in vitro and in vivo monitoring of hypoxia in research and clinical settings.

DETECTION OF ADENOVIRUS ANTIGEN BY A SURFACE-ENHANCED RAMAN SCATTERING ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY

Aim. Study of the possibility of adenovirus antigen detection by recording of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectra of enzyme oxidized product of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine. Materials and methods. Clinical fecal samples containing adenoviruses, group A rotaviruses, noroviruses and healthy children samples, as well as laboratory strains of adenoviruses with a titer of 5 — 6 lg TCD50/ml were used. Sandwich immunoassay was used, the Raman spectra were recorded by a Raman spectrometer (532 nm) after incubation with silver nanoparticles. Results. The concordance of the adenovirus detection results was obtained in comparison with the enzyme immunoassay method with colorimetric detection and PCR. Conclusion. The possibility of TMB+ using as a SERS reporter and silver nanoparticles as a SERS substrate for the detection of adenovirus antigen in complex biological samples was shown.

Direct surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy of nucleic acids: from fundamental studies to real-life applications.

Plasmonic optical biosensors for the analysis of nucleic acids have drawn a great deal of interest in nanomedicine because of their capability to overcome major limitations of conventional methods. Within this realm, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based sensing is progressively emerging as a powerful analytical tool beyond the basic grounds of academia to viable commercial products. SERS benefits from the synergistic combination between the intrinsic structural specificity and experimental flexibility of Raman spectroscopy, the extremely high sensitivity provided by plasmonic nanomaterials, and the tremendous advances in nanofabrication techniques and spectroscopic instrumentation. SERS application to nucleic acids analysis has been largely restricted to indirect sensing approaches, where a SERS reporter and oligonucleotide ligands are typically combined onto the nanomaterials to enable extrinsic detection of the target sequences. On the other hand, the acquisition of the intrinsic SERS vibrational fingerprint of nucleic acids (direct sensing) has traditionally suffered from major limitations. However, recent years have witnessed a burst of interest in this area, largely driven by the efforts to address key reproducibility and sensitivity issues. In this tutorial review, we summarize and discuss the most recent cutting-edge research in the field of direct SERS sensing of nucleic acids by coherently organising the diverse data reported in the literature in a structurally logical fashion.

Microfluidic chip based micro RNA detection through the combination of fluorescence and surface enhanced Raman scattering techniques

We present a novel microfluidic chip based method for the detection of micro RNA (miRNA) via the combination of fluorescence and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopies. First, silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are immobilized onto a glass slide, forming a SERS enhancing substrate. Then a specificially designed molecular beacon (MB) is attached to the SERS substrate. The 3′ end of the MB is decorated with a thiol group to facilitate the attachment of the MB, while the 5′ end of the MB is labeled with an organic dye 6-FAM, which is used both as the fluorophore and SERS reporter. In the absence of target miRNA, the MB will form a hairpin structure, making 6-FAM close to the Ag NPs. Hence, the fluorescence of 6-FAM will be quenched and the Raman signal of 6-FAM will be enhanced. On the contrary, with target miRNA present, hybridization between the miRNA and MB will unfold the MB and increase the distance between 6-FAM and the Ag NPs. Thus the fluorescence of 6-FAM will recover and the SERS signal of 6-FAM will decrease. So the target miRNA will simultaneously introduce opposite changing trends in the intensities of the fluorescence and SERS signals. By combining the opposite changes in the two optical spectra, an improved sensitivity and linearity toward the target miRNA is achieved as compared with using solely fluorescence or SERS. Moreover, introducing the microfluidic chip can reduce the reaction time, reagent dosage and complexity of detection. With the improved sensitivity and simplicity, we anticipate that the presented method can have great potential in the investigation of miRNA related diseases.

Micron-sized surface enhanced Raman scattering reporter/fluorescence probe encoded colloidal microspheres for sensitive DNA detection

A new type of optical probes, featuring surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and fluorescence spectra dual-mode encoding, has been reported in this article. Based on the uniform micrometer-sized melamine resin/Ag nanoparticles (MRM/Ag-NPs) composite microspheres, the SERS reporters and fluorescent probes were successfully fixed onto the different layers of the MEM/Ag-NPs microspheres, which supported the sensitive DNA detecton. The two spectroscopic methods commonly considered to be contradictive to each other, yet the optical signals were separable in the experiments. The dual-encoding strategy and single microsphere detecton method put the number of available independent codes to be rough the multiple of those available in the two optical detection channels, which increases far more rapidly than the summation of the two channels. As a proof of cencept, the utility of this dual spectrum mode SERS-fluoresecence encoded microsphere (SFEM) was demonstrated in a specific DNA detection using complimentary ssDNA functionalized magnetic beads as the DNA capturing and separation agents. Excellent encoding results were demonstrated from the decoding of the SERS and fluorescence signals of the SFEM. The method appears to be general in scope and we expect that the SERS-fluoresecence encoded microspheres system is applicable to multiplex bioassays of a variety of biomolecules.

Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering and Gated Materials for Sensing Applications: The Ultrasensitive Detection of Mycoplasma and Cocaine.

We present herein a novel combination of gated mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) for sensing applications. As a proof-of-concept, we show the design of a system comprising MSNs loaded with crystal violet (CV), a molecule with high Raman cross section acting as SERS reporter, and capped with either a suitable DNA sequence for the detection of Mycoplasma genomic DNA or with an aptamer that selectively coordinates cocaine. In both cases the presence of the corresponding target analyte in solution (i.e., genomic DNA or cocaine) resulted in the release of CV. CV delivery was detected by SERS upon adsorption on gold nanotriangles (AuNTs), which display an efficient electromagnetic field enhancement and a high colloidal stability. By using this novel procedure a limit of detection of at least 30 copies DNA per μL was determined for the detection of Mycoplasma genomic DNA, whereas cocaine was detected at concentrations as low as 10 nm.

Plasmonic SERS biosensing nanochips for DNA detection.

The development of rapid, cost-effective DNA detection methods for molecular diagnostics at the point-of-care (POC) has been receiving increasing interest. This article reviews several DNA detection techniques based on plasmonic-active nanochip platforms developed in our laboratory over the last 5years, including the molecular sentinel-on-chip (MSC), the multiplex MSC, and the inverse molecular sentinel-on-chip (iMS-on-Chip). DNA probes were used as the recognition elements, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) was used as the signal detection method. Sensing mechanisms were based on hybridization of target sequences and DNA probes, resulting in a distance change between SERS reporters and the nanochip's plasmonic-active surface. As the field intensity of the surface plasmon decays exponentially as a function of distance, the distance change in turn affects SERS signal intensity, thus indicating the presence and capture of the target sequences. Our techniques were single-step DNA detection techniques. Target sequences were detected by simple delivery of sample solutions onto DNA probe-functionalized nanochips and measuring the SERS signal after appropriate incubation times. Target sequence labeling or washing to remove unreacted components was not required, making the techniques simple, easy-to-use, and cost-effective. The usefulness of the nanochip platform-based techniques for medical diagnostics was illustrated by the detection of host genetic biomarkers for respiratory viral infection and of the dengue virus gene.

Microwave assisted in situ synthesis of Ag–NaCMC films and their reproducible surface-enhanced Raman scattering signals

Two kinds of Ag–NaCMC films for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) were prepared by conventional heating and microwave assisted in situ reduction methods without any additional capping or reducing agents. A relatively narrow and symmetric surface plasmon resonance band was observed in the absorption spectra of the films fabricated by the microwave assisted in situ reduction method. More uniform silver nanoparticles (NPs) implied by the symmetric absorption spectrum were further confirmed by the scanning electron microscopy images. After the simulation of the E-field intensity distribution around the silver NPs in NaCMC film, the Raman scattering enhancement factors (EFs) of these films were then investigated with 4-mercaptobenzoic acid molecule as a SERS reporter. Improved reproducibility of SERS signal was obtained in the microwave assisted synthesized Ag–NaCMC film, although it maintained an EF as only 1.11×108. The reproducible SERS signal of the Ag–NaCMC film is particularly attractive and this microwave assisted in situ reduction method is suitable for the production of excellent substrate for biosensor application.

Meditating Metal Coenhanced Fluorescence and SERS Around Gold Nanoaggregates in Nanosphere as Bifunctional Biosensor for Multiple DNA Targets

Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) are very attractive candidate nanoparticles in biological assay because of their high chemical stabilities, high homogeneities, good biocompatibilities, and low toxicities. However, molecular beacon assays via encapsulating the combined fluorescence or surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) signals of reporters and Au NPs in nanobarcodes particles usually suffer from fluorescence quenching or weak Raman enhancement when Au NPs are employed (especially with size smaller than 15 nm). Herein, we present a new design of simultaneously realizing metal-enhanced fluorescence and coenhanced surface-enhanced Raman scattering by facilely embedding Ag nanoparticle into the shell of two kinds of Au nanoaggregate (5 and 10 nm), meanwhile, fluorophore is located between the silver core and gold nanoparticle layers and the distance among them is adjusted by SiO2 spacer (Ag@first SiO2 spacer@FiTC+SiO2@second SiO2 spacer@Au nanoaggregate). In this architecture, Ag nanoparticle not only is utilized as an efficient fluorescence enhancer to overcome the common fluorescence quenching around Au nanoaggregates but also behaves like a mirror. Thus, incident light that passes through the SERS-active Au nanoaggregate and the intervening dielectric layer of SiO2 could be reflected multiply from the surface of Ag nanoparticle and coupled with the light at the nanogap between the Au nanoaggregates to further amplify Raman intensity. This results in enhancement factors for fluorescence and SERS ~1.6-fold and more than 300-fold higher than the control samples without silver core under identical experimental conditions, respectively. Moreover, fluorophore and SERS reporters are assembled onto different layers of the concentric hybrid microsphere, resulting in a feasible fabrication protocol when a large number of agents need to be involved into the dual-mode nanobarcodes. A proof-of-concept chip-based DNA sandwich hybridization assay using genetically modified organisms as a model system has been investigated based on the concentric hybrid microsphere. The high specificity and sensitivity of the assays suggest that the new architecture has a potential for various bioanalytical applications and provides opportunities for other similar metal nanoparticles to realize coenhancement effect.

Quintuple-modality (SERS-MRI-CT-TPL-PTT) plasmonic nanoprobe for theranostics

A unique quintuple-modality theranostic nanoprobe (QMT) is developed with gold nanostars for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), two-photon luminescence (TPL) imaging and photothermal therapy (PTT). The synthesized gold nanostars were tagged with a SERS reporter and linked with an MRI contrast agent Gd(3+). In vitro experiments demonstrated the developed QMT nanoprobe to be a potential theranostic agent for future biomedical applications.

Preparation and characterization of multicore SERS labels by controlled aggregation of gold nanoparticles

The preparation and characterization of multicore labels for surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) at 785nm excitation are described. These labels consist of gold nanoparticles whose aggregation was controlled by a diamine. SERS reporters were attached that contain sulfur groups for covalent conjugation to the gold surface and aromatic ring structures for distinct Raman signatures. A thin silver layer was deposited onto aggregated gold nanoparticles to further enhance the SERS signals. Two polymers were deposited to prepare the surface for encapsulation by silica and stabilize nanoparticles. The thickness of the silica layer depended on ammonia concentration and was determined by transmission electron microscopy. Treatment with APTMS provided amino groups for subsequent conjugation with antibodies. N–H bending vibrations of amino silane were detected by infrared spectroscopy. Functionalization of the silica coated multicore labels by a FITC labeled antibody was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. A Zetasizer determined an average radius of 60nm. SERS spectra of labels with three different reporters and a SERS spectrum of mixed labels with exposure time between 10ms and 1s demonstrated the high sensitivity and multiplexing capacity. This design of multicore labels offers 785nm near-infrared excitation for reduced laser-induced cell degradation, size above 100nm for low toxicity under in vivo investigations as reported elsewhere, high stability due to silica encapsulation, and capability of antibody binding. These biocompatible properties make multicore labels with different reporters a promising candidate for diagnostic applications.

Combinatorial synthesis of a triphenylmethine library and their application in the development of Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) probes

The first synthesis of a triphenylmethine (TM) library of compounds and screening of their Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) capability was carried out to identify novel Raman reporters with high sensitivity. We identified three novel SERS reporters (B2, B7, and C7) with higher signal intensity than that of commonly used crystal violet (CV). These reporters may find potential applications in developing sensitive SERS based biosensors.