Surface Density Profile Research Articles

The Spatial Structure of the Galactic outer disk with LAMOST DR3 K giant stars

AbstractThe spatial structure of the Milky Way outer disk is characterized with ~ 70000 LAMOST DR3 K giants after carefully correction of their selection effects. By slicing the data into various Galactocentric radius bins, we are able to fit the vertical stellar density profile with a models composed of two isothermal-sheet disks and an oblate power-law halo. We find that although the thin disk is significantly flared, the radial surface density profile can extend to as far as 19 kpc. Beyond 12 kpc, only one thicker disk, rather than two disk components, are found in the samples. Moreover, the residual of the density profiles after subtracting the best fit models show different oscillation patterns in almost all range of detecting radius.

Centrifugally driven winds from protostellar accretion discs – I. Formulation and initial results

Protostellar discs play an important role in star formation, acting as the primary mass reservoir for accretion onto young stars and regulating the extent to which angular momentum and gas is released back into stellar nurseries through the launching of powerful disc winds. In this study, we explore how disc structure relates to the properties of the wind-launching region, mapping out the regions of protostellar discs where wind launching could be viable. We combine a series of 1.5D semi-analytic, steady-state, vertical disc-wind solutions into a radially extended 1+1.5D model, incorporating all three diffusion mechanisms (Ohm, Hall and ambipolar). We observe that the majority of mass outflow via disc winds occurs over a radial width of a fraction of an astronomical unit, with outflow rates attenuating rapidly on either side. We also find that the mass accretion rate, magnetic field strength and surface density profile each have significant effects on both the location of the wind-launching region and the ejection/accretion ratio $\dot{M}_{\rm out}/\dot{M}_{\rm in}$. Increasing either the accretion rate or the magnetic field strength corresponds to a shift of the wind-launching region to smaller radii and a decrease in $\dot{M}_{\rm out}/\dot{M}_{\rm in}$, while increasing the surface density corresponds to launching regions at larger radii with increased $\dot{M}_{\rm out}/\dot{M}_{\rm in}$. Finally, we discover a class of disc winds containing an ineffective launching configuration at intermediate radii, leading to two radially separated regions of wind launching and diminished $\dot{M}_{\rm out}/\dot{M}_{\rm in}$. We find that the wind locations and ejection/accretion ratio are consistent with current observational and theoretical estimates.

Stability aspects of relativistic thin magnetized disks

We adapt the well known "displace, cut and reflect" method to construct exact solutions of the Einstein-Maxwell equations corresponding to infinitesimally thin disks of matter endowed with dipole magnetic fields, which are entirely supported by surface polar currents on the disk. Our starting point is the Gutsunaev-Manko axisymmetric solution describing massive magnetic dipoles in General Relativity, from which we obtain a continuous three-parameter family of asymptotically flat static magnetized disks with finite mass and energy. For strong magnetic fields, the disk surface density profile resembles some well known self-gravitating ring-like structures. We show that many of these solutions can be indeed stable and, hence, they could be in principle useful for the study of the abundant astrophysical situations involving disks of matter and magnetic fields.

Stellar envelopes of globular clusters embedded in dark mini-haloes

Abstract We show that hard encounters in the central regions of globular clusters (GCs) embedded in dark matter (DM) haloes necessarily lead to the formation of gravitationally bound stellar envelopes that extend far beyond the nominal tidal radius of the system. Using statistical arguments and numerical techniques, we derive the equilibrium distribution function of stars ejected from the centre of a non-divergent spherical potential. Independently of the velocity distribution with which stars are ejected, GC envelopes have density profiles that approach asymptotically ρ ∼ r−4 at large distances and become isothermal towards the centre. Adding a DM halo component leaves two clear-cut observational signatures: (i) a flattening, or slightly increase of the projected velocity dispersion profile at large distances, and (ii) an outer surface density profile that is systematically shallower than in models with no DM.

Characterising face-on accretion onto and the subsequent contraction of protoplanetary discs

Observations indicate that stars generally lose their protoplanetary discs on a timescale of about 5 Myr. Which mechanisms are responsible for the disc dissipation is still debated. Here we investigate the movement through an ambient medium as a possible cause of disc dispersal. The ram pressure exerted by the flow can truncate the disc and the accretion of material with no azimuthal angular momentum leads to further disc contraction. We derive a theoretical model from accretion disc theory that describes the evolution of the disc radius, mass, and surface density profile as a function of the density and velocity of the ambient medium. We test our model by performing hydrodynamical simulations of a protoplanetary disc embedded in a flow with different velocities and densities. We find that our model gives an adequate description of the evolution of the disc radius and accretion rate onto the disc. The total disc mass in the simulations follows the theoretically expected trend, except at the lowest density where our simulated discs lose mass owing to continuous stripping. This stripping may be a numerical rather than a physical effect. Some quantitative differences exist between the model predictions and the simulations. These are at least partly caused by numerical viscous effects in the disc and depend on the resolution of the simulation. Our model can be used as a conservative estimate for the process of face-on accretion onto protoplanetary discs, as long as viscous processes in the disc can be neglected. The model predicts that in dense gaseous environments, discs can shrink substantially in size and can, in theory, sweep up an amount of gas of the order of their initial mass. This process could be relevant for planet formation in dense environments.

Models of bars - I. Flattish profiles for early-type galaxies

We introduce a simple family of barred galaxy models with flat rotation curves. They are built by convolving the axisymmetric logarithmic model with a needle density. The density contours in the bar region are highly triaxial and elongated, but become spheroidal in the outer parts. The mass distribution differs markedly from the elliptical shape assumed in other analytical models, like Ferrers or Freeman bars. The surface density profile along the bar major axis is flattish, as befits models for bars in early-type galaxies (SB0, SBa). The two-dimensional orbital structure of the models is analysed with surfaces of section and characteristic diagrams and it reveals qualitatively new features. For some pattern speeds, additional Lagrange points can exist along the major axis, and give rise to off-centered, trapped orbits. When the bar is weak, the orbital structure is very simple, comprising just prograde, aligned $x_1$ orbits and retrograde anti-aligned $x_4$ orbits. As the bar strength increases, the $x_1$ family becomes unstable and vanishes, with propeller orbits dominating the characteristic diagram.

Using Ice and Dust Lines to Constrain the Surface Densities of Protoplanetary Disks

Abstract We present a novel method for determining the surface density of protoplanetary disks through consideration of disk “dust lines,” which indicate the observed disk radial scale at different observational wavelengths. This method relies on the assumption that the processes of particle growth and drift control the radial scale of the disk at late stages of disk evolution such that the lifetime of the disk is equal to both the drift timescale and growth timescale of the maximum particle size at a given dust line. We provide an initial proof of concept of our model through an application to the disk TW Hya and are able to estimate the disk dust-to-gas ratio, CO abundance, and accretion rate in addition to the total disk surface density. We find that our derived surface density profile and dust-to-gas ratio are consistent with the lower limits found through measurements of HD gas. The CO ice line also depends on surface density through grain adsorption rates and drift and we find that our theoretical CO ice line estimates have clear observational analogues. We further apply our model to a large parameter space of theoretical disks and find three observational diagnostics that may be used to test its validity. First, we predict that the dust lines of disks other than TW Hya will be consistent with the normalized CO surface density profile shape for those disks. Second, surface density profiles that we derive from disk ice lines should match those derived from disk dust lines. Finally, we predict that disk dust and ice lines will scale oppositely, as a function of surface density, across a large sample of disks.

The role of gap edge instabilities in setting the depth of planet gaps in protoplanetary discs

It is known that an embedded massive planet will open a gap in a protoplanetary disc via angular momentum exchange with the disc material. The resulting surface density profile of the disc is investigated for one dimensional and two dimensional disc models and, in agreement with previous work, it is found that one dimensional gaps are significantly deeper than their two dimensional counterparts for the same initial conditions. We find, by applying one dimensional torque density distributions to two dimensional discs containing no planet, that the excitement of the Rossby wave instability and the formation of Rossby vortices play a critical role in setting the equilibrium depth of the gap. Being a two dimensional instability, this is absent from one dimensional simulations and does not limit the equilibrium gap depth there. We find similar gap depths between two dimensional gaps formed by torque density distributions, in which the Rossby wave instability is present, and two dimensional planet gaps, in which no Rossby wave instability is present. This can be understood if the planet gap is maintained at marginal stability, even when there is no obvious Rossby wave instability present. Further investigation shows the final equilibrium gap depth is very sensitive to the form of the applied torque density distribution, and using improved one dimensional approximations from three dimensional simulations can go even further to reducing the discrepancy between one and two dimensional models, especially for lower mass planets. This behaviour is found to be consistent across discs with varying parameters.

A halo model for cosmological neutral hydrogen : abundances and clustering

We extend the results of previous analyses towards constraining the abundance and clustering of post-reionization ($z \sim 0-5$) neutral hydrogen (HI) systems using a halo model framework. We work with a comprehensive HI dataset including the small-scale clustering, column density and mass function of HI galaxies at low redshifts, intensity mapping measurements at intermediate redshifts and the UV/optical observations of Damped Lyman Alpha (DLA) systems at higher redshifts. We use a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) approach to constrain the parameters of the best-fitting models, both for the HI-halo mass relation and the HI radial density profile. We find that a radial exponential profile results in a good fit to the low-redshift HI observations, including the clustering and the column density distribution. The form of the profile is also found to match the high-redshift DLA observations, when used in combination with a three-parameter HI-halo mass relation and a redshift evolution in the HI concentration. The halo model predictions are in good agreement with the observed HI surface density profiles of low-redshift galaxies, and the general trends in the the impact parameter and covering fraction observations of high-redshift DLAs. We provide convenient tables summarizing the best-fit halo model predictions.

Radial Surface Density Profiles of Gas and Dust in the Debris Disk around 49 Ceti

Abstract We present ∼0.″4 resolution images of CO(3–2) and associated continuum emission from the gas-bearing debris disk around the nearby A star 49 Ceti, observed with the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA). We analyze the ALMA visibilities in tandem with the broadband spectral energy distribution to measure the radial surface density profiles of dust and gas emission from the system. The dust surface density decreases with radius between ∼100 and 310 au, with a marginally significant enhancement of surface density at a radius of ∼110 au. The SED requires an inner disk of small grains in addition to the outer disk of larger grains resolved by ALMA. The gas disk exhibits a surface density profile that increases with radius, contrary to most previous spatially resolved observations of circumstellar gas disks. While ∼80% of the CO flux is well described by an axisymmetric power-law disk in Keplerian rotation about the central star, residuals at ∼20% of the peak flux exhibit a departure from axisymmetry suggestive of spiral arms or a warp in the gas disk. The radial extent of the gas disk (∼220 au) is smaller than that of the dust disk (∼300 au), consistent with recent observations of other gas-bearing debris disks. While there are so far only three broad debris disks with well characterized radial dust profiles at millimeter wavelengths, 49 Ceti’s disk shows a markedly different structure from two radially resolved gas-poor debris disks, implying that the physical processes generating and sculpting the gas and dust are fundamentally different.

Reinforcement of the link between stellar metallicity and the zero age orbit of gas giant planet

AbstractIn 2005 we suggested a relation between the optimal locus of gas giant planet formation, prior to migration, and the metallicity of the host star, based on the core accretion model, and radial profiles of dust surface density and gas temperature. At that time, less than 200 extrasolar planets were known, limiting the scope of our analysis. Here, we take into account the expanded statistics allowed by new discoveries, in order to check the validity of some premises. We compare predictions with the present available data and results for different stellar mass ranges. We find that the zero age planetary orbit (ZAPO) hypothesis continues to hold after a two order of magnitude increase in discovered planets, as well as the prediction that planets around metal poor stars would have shorter orbits.

Forming disc galaxies in major mergers – III. The effect of angular momentum on the radial density profiles of disc galaxies

We study the effect of angular momentum on the surface density profiles of disc galaxies, using high resolution simulations of major mergers whose remnants have downbending radial density profiles (type II). As described in the previous papers of this series, in this scenario, most of the disc mass is acquired after the collision via accretion from a hot gaseous halo. We find that the inner and outer disc scalelengths, as well as the break radius, correlate with the total angular momentum of the initial merging system, and are larger for high angular momentum systems. We follow the angular momentum redistribution in our simulated galaxies, and find that, like the mass, the disc angular momentum is acquired via accretion, i.e. to the detriment of the gaseous halo. Furthermore, high angular momentum systems give more angular momentum to their discs, which affects directly their radial density profile. Adding simulations of isolated galaxies to our sample, we find that the correlations are valid also for disc galaxies evolved in isolation. We show that the outer part of the disc at the end of the simulation is populated mainly by inside-out stellar migration, and that in galaxies with higher angular momentum, stars travel radially further out. This, however, does not mean that outer disc stars (in type II discs) were mostly born in the inner disc. Indeed, generally the break radius increases over time, and not taking this into account leads to overestimating the number of stars born in the inner disc.

Connection between Stellar Mass Distributions within Galaxies and Quenching Since z = 2

Abstract We study the history from to of the stellar mass assembly of quiescent and star-forming galaxies in a spatially resolved fashion. For this purpose, we use multi-wavelength imaging data from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) over the GOODS fields and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) for the local population. We present the radial stellar mass surface density profiles of galaxies with , corrected for mass-to-light ratio ( /L) variations, and derive the half-mass-radius (R m ), central stellar mass surface density within 1 kpc ( ) and surface density at R m ( ) for star-forming and quiescent galaxies and study their evolution with redshift. At fixed stellar mass, the half-mass sizes of quiescent galaxies increase from to by a factor of , whereas the half-mass sizes of star-forming galaxies increase only slightly, by a factor of ∼2. The central densities of quiescent galaxies decline slightly (by a factor of ) from to , while for star-forming galaxies increases with time, at fixed mass. We show that the central density has a tighter correlation with specific star-formation rate (sSFR) than and for all masses and redshifts galaxies with higher central density are more prone to be quenched. Reaching a high central density ( ) seems to be a prerequisite for the cessation of star formation, though a causal link between high and quenching is difficult to prove and their correlation can have a different origin.

An ALMA and MagAO Study of the Substellar Companion GQ Lup B∗

Abstract Multi-wavelength observations provide a complementary view of the formation of young, directly imaged planet-mass companions. We report the ALMA 1.3 mm and Magellan adaptive optics Hα, , , and Y S observations of the GQ Lup system, a classical T Tauri star with a substellar companion at ∼110 au projected separation. We estimate the accretion rates for both components from the observed Hα fluxes. In our ∼0.″05 resolution ALMA map, we resolve GQ Lup A’s disk in the dust continuum, but no signal is found from the companion. The disk is compact, with a radius of ∼22 au, a dust mass of ∼6 M ⊕, an inclination angle of ∼56°, and a very flat surface density profile indicative of a radial variation in dust grain sizes. No gaps or inner cavity are found in the disk, so there is unlikely a massive inner companion to scatter GQ Lup B outward. Thus, GQ Lup B might have formed in situ via disk fragmentation or prestellar core collapse. We also show that GQ Lup A’s disk is misaligned with its spin axis, and possibly with GQ Lup B’s orbit. Our analysis on the tidal truncation radius of GQ Lup A’s disk suggests that GQ Lup B’s orbit might have a low eccentricity.

Galactic disc profiles and a universal angular momentum distribution from statistical physics

We show that the stellar surface-brightness profiles in disc galaxies---observed to be approximately exponential---can be explained if radial migration efficiently scrambles the individual stars' angular momenta while conserving the circularity of the orbits and the total mass and angular momentum. In this case the disc's distribution of specific angular momenta $j$ should be near a maximum-entropy state and therefore approximately exponential, $dN\propto\exp(-j/\langle j\rangle)dj$. This distribution translates to a surface-density profile that is generally not an exponential function of radius: $\Sigma(R)\propto\exp[-R/R_e(R)]/(RR_e(R))(1+d\log v_c(R)/d\log R)$, for a rotation curve $v_c(R)$ and $R_e(R)\equiv\langle j\rangle/v_c(R)$. We show that such a profile matches the observed surface-brightness profiles of disc-dominated galaxies as well as the empirical exponential profile. Disc galaxies that exhibit population gradients cannot have fully reached a maximum-entropy state but appear to be close enough that their surface-brightness profiles are well-fit by this idealized model.

A gas density drop in the inner 6 AU of the transition disk around the Herbig Ae star HD 139614

Context: Quantifying the gas content inside the dust gaps of transition disks is important to establish their origin. Aims: We seek to constrain the surface density of warm gas in the disk of HD 139614, a Herbig Ae star with a transition disk exhibiting a dust gap from 2.3 to 6 AU. Methods: We have obtained ESO/VLT CRIRES high-resolution spectra of CO ro-vibrational emission. We derived constraints on the disk's structure by modeling the line-profiles, the spectroastrometric signal, and the rotational diagrams using flat Keplerian disk models. Results: We detected v=1-0 12CO, 2-1 12CO, 1-0 13CO, 1-0 C18O, and 1-0 C17O ro-vibrational lines. 12CO v=1-0 lines have an average width of 14 km/s, Tgas of 450 K and an emitting region from 1 to 15 AU. 13CO and C18O lines are on average 70 and 100 K colder, 1 and 4 km/s narrower, and are dominated by emission at R>6 AU. The 12CO v=1-0 line-profile indicates that if there is a gap in the gas it must be narrower than 2 AU. We find that a drop in the gas surface density (delta_gas) at R<5-6 AU is required to simultaneously reproduce the line-profiles and rotational diagrams of the three CO isotopologs. Delta_gas can range from 10^-2 to 10^-4 depending on the gas-to-dust ratio of the outer disk. We find that at 1<R<6 AU the gas surface density profile is flat or increases with radius. We derive a gas column density at 1<R<6 AU of NH=3x10^19 - 10^21 cm^-2. We find a 5sigma upper limit on NCO at R<1 AU of 5x10^15 cm^-2 (NH<5x10^19 cm^-2). Conclusions: The dust gap in the disk of HD 139614 has gas. The gas surface density in the disk at R<6 AU is significantly lower than the surface density expected from HD 139614's accretion rate assuming a viscous alpha-disk model. The gas density drop, the non-negative density gradient of the gas inside 6 AU, and the absence of a wide (>2 AU) gas gap suggest the presence of an embedded <2 MJ planet at around 4 AU.

How to get cool in the heat: comparing analytic models of hot, cold, and cooling gas in haloes and galaxies with EAGLE

We use the hydrodynamic, cosmological EAGLE simulations to investigate how hot gas in haloes condenses to form and grow galaxies. We select haloes from the simulations that are actively cooling and study the temperature, distribution, and metallicity of their hot, cold, and transitioning `cooling' gas, placing these in context of semi-analytic models. Our selection criteria lead us to focus on Milky Way-like haloes. We find the hot-gas density profiles of the haloes form a progressively stronger core over time, the nature of which can be captured by a beta profile that has a simple dependence on redshift. In contrast, the hot gas that will cool over a time-step is broadly consistent with a singular isothermal sphere. We find that cooling gas carries a few times the specific angular momentum of the halo and is offset in spin direction from the rest of the hot gas. The gas loses ~60% of its specific angular momentum during the cooling process, generally remaining greater than that of the halo, and it precesses to become aligned with the cold gas already in the disc. We find tentative evidence that angular-momentum losses are slightly larger when gas cools onto dispersion-supported galaxies. We show that an exponential surface density profile for gas arriving on a disc remains a reasonable approximation, but a cusp containing ~20% of the mass is always present, and disc scale radii are larger than predicted by a vanilla Fall & Efstathiou model. These scale radii are still closely correlated with the halo spin parameter, for which we suggest an updated prescription for galaxy formation models.

HCO+ DETECTION OF DUST-DEPLETED GAS IN THE INNER HOLE OF THE LkCa 15 PRE-TRANSITIONAL DISK

ABSTRACT LkCa 15 is an extensively studied star in the Taurus region, known for its pre-transitional disk with a large inner cavity in the dust continuum and normal gas accretion rate. The most popular hypothesis to explain the LkCa 15 data invokes one or more planets to carve out the inner cavity, while gas continues to flow across the gap from the outer disk onto the central star. We present spatially unresolved HCO+ observations of the LkCa 15 disk from the James Clerk Maxwell telescope (JCMT) and model the data with the ProDiMo code. We find that: (1) HCO+ line-wings are clearly detected, certifying the presence of gas in the cavity within ≲50 au of the star. (2) Reproducing the observed line-wing flux requires both a significant suppression of cavity dust (by a factor ≳104 compared to the interstellar medium (ISM)) and a substantial increase in the gas scale-height within the cavity (H 0/R 0 ∼ 0.6). An ISM dust-to-gas ratio (d:g = 10−2) yields too little line-wing flux, regardless of the scale-height or cavity gas geometry, while a smaller scale-height also under-predicts the flux even with a reduced d:g. (3) The cavity gas mass is consistent with the surface density profile of the outer disk extended inwards to the sublimation radius (corresponding to mass M d ∼ 0.03 M ⊙), and masses lower by a factor ≳10 appear to be ruled out.

OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE OF DYNAMIC STAR FORMATION RATE IN MILKY WAY GIANT MOLECULAR CLOUDS

ABSTRACT Star formation on galactic scales is known to be a slow process, but whether it is slow on smaller scales is uncertain. We cross-correlate 5469 giant molecular clouds (GMCs) from a new all-sky catalog with 256 star-forming complexes (SFCs) to build a sample of 191 SFC-GMC complexes—collections of multiple clouds each matched to 191 SFCs. The total mass in stars harbored by these clouds is inferred from WMAP free–free fluxes. We measure the GMC mass, the virial parameter, the star formation efficiency ϵ and the star formation rate per freefall time ϵ ff. Both ϵ and ϵ ff range over 3–4 orders of magnitude. We find that 68.3% of the clouds fall within and about the median. Compared to these observed scatters, a simple model with a time-independent ϵ ff that depends on the host GMC properties predicts . Allowing for a time-variable ϵ ff, we can recover the large dispersion in the rate of star formation. This strongly suggests that star formation in the Milky Way is a dynamic process on GMC scales. We also show that the surface star formation rate profile of the Milky Way correlates well with the molecular gas surface density profile.

Stabilized density gradient theory algorithm for modeling interfacial properties of pure and mixed systems

Density gradient theory (DGT) allows fast and accurate determination of surface tension and density profile through a phase interface. Several algorithms have been developed to apply this theory in practical calculations. While the conventional algorithm requires a reference substance of the system, a modified “stabilized density gradient theory” (SDGT) algorithm is introduced in our work to solve DGT equations for multiphase pure and mixed systems. This algorithm makes it possible to calculate interfacial properties accurately at any domain size larger than the interface thickness without choosing a reference substance or assuming the functional form of the density profile. As part of DGT inputs, the perturbed chain statistical associating fluid theory (PC-SAFT) equation of state (EoS) was employed with the SDGT algorithm. PC-SAFT has excellent performance in predicting liquid phase properties as well as phase behaviors. The SDGT algorithm with the PC-SAFT EoS was tested and compared with experimental data for several systems. Numerical stability analyses were also included in each calculation to verify the reliability of this approach for future applications.