Support Smallholder Farmers Research Articles

Benefits and Trade-Offs of Smallholder Sweet Potato Cultivation as a Pathway toward Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), will shape national development plans up to 2030. SDGs 1 (No Poverty), 2 (Zero Hunger) and 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) are particularly crucial for the poor, given they target the basic human needs for development and fundamental human rights. The majority of poor and malnourished people in the developing world live in rural areas and engage in farming as a key part of their livelihoods, with food and agriculture at the heart of their development concerns. Crops that can provide both food and energy without detrimental impacts on soil or water resources can be particularly beneficial for local development and smallholder farmers. Sweet potato, in particular, is starting to attract growing attention from researchers and policymakers as it has the potential to address these global problems and promote a sustainable society. We systematically review the literature to assess how sweet potato can support smallholder farmers to make progress towards the SDGs. We find that sweet potato has important untapped potential to advance progress, particularly linked to its versatility as a crop and its multiple end-uses. However, further research is paramount in order to better recognise and harness its potential to address the issues of food, nutrition and energy security in the context of a changing global climate. Further investigation is also needed into the trade-offs that occur in the use of sweet potato to support progress towards the SDGs.

Increasing farm size to improve energy use efficiency and sustainability in maize production

AbstractWhile the relationship between crop yields and the environmental impacts of crop agriculture has been well‐documented, research on the relationship between farm size and the sustainability of cereal production is limited. Using survey data on 120 farms with both small‐ and large‐scale fields in Northeast China, this paper combines a life cycle assessment and the carbon‐based sustainability index (SI) algorithm to examine how maize productivity and agricultural inputs vary with farm size and to clarify how increasing farm size is correlated with energy use efficiency (EUE) and the SI. The results indicate that maize grain yield did not vary with farm size. Increasing farm size was shown to lead to reductions in the areal (per ha) rates of agro‐chemical inputs, energy depletion, and greenhouse gas emissions and increased in EUE and SI. Fertilizer‐ and fuel‐related agricultural inputs dominated the variations of EUE and SI. A scenario analysis indicates that, if farmers adopt a comprehensive management strategy (i.e., machines appropriate to farm size and recommended fertilizer application rates and crop management strategies), EUE and SI would increase by 68.5% (from 4.45 to 7.50) and 74.3% (from 10.1 to 17.6), respectively. Although increasing farm size could benefit maize sustainable production when matched with technical innovation and machinery coordination, supporting smallholder farmers to increase their resource use efficiency and sustainability is also key in China and other regions where smallholder farms comprise a large portion of the cropland area.

Improving the effectiveness of agricultural extension services in supporting farmers to adapt to climate change: Insights from northeastern Ghana

The importance of extension services in helping smallholder farmers to address the many challenges of agricultural production cannot be over-emphasized. However, relatively few studies have been conducted that investigate how the capacities of agricultural extension agents can be built to more effectively assist smallholder farmers in managing climate risks and impacts. As climate change is a key threat to smallholder food production, addressing this issue is increasingly important. This paper aims to identify how agricultural extension agents in Ghana can better support smallholder farmers in navigating and addressing the effects of climate change on food production. It asks: (i) what are the sources of information used by agricultural extension agents in Ghana’s Upper East region? (ii) what are the capacity building needs of agricultural extension agents for effective communication of climate information for building resilient agricultural systems? (iii) what are the key barriers to successful extension outcomes for climate change adaptation? The paper uses a mixed methods approach including three regional stakeholder workshops, expert interviews and surveys with 32 agricultural extension agents in northeastern Ghana. Results addressing question (i) indicated that radios and television are the dominant sources of climate information for agricultural extension agents in the Upper East region. Findings targeting question (ii) identified capacity building needs such as developing extension agents’ technical skills, improving communication skills, improving knowledge and use of climate smart agricultural interventions such as soil moisture conservation methods, and training on information communication technologies (ICT) to deliver extension advice on climate change. Other needs included developing skills in field demonstration and project monitoring and evaluation. Addressing question (iii), key barriers confronted by agricultural extension agents in the delivery of extension on climate change included lack of transportation facilities for extension agents, lack of appropriate extension materials, high agricultural extension agent to farmer ratios, and inadequate funds to implement adaptation practices. Wider barriers reducing the effectiveness of extension efforts included farmer resistance to change and complex land tenure arrangements that do not allow investment. Periodic workshops should be organised for agricultural extension agents on the use of ICT to deliver extension services, whilst encouraging the use of audio-visuals in extension delivery. These efforts should be supported by regular assessments of extension agents’ capacity building needs.

Patterns of land system change in a Southeast Asian biodiversity hotspot

Growing demand for agricultural commodities like rubber or oil palm is causing rapid change in Southeast Asia's biodiversity-rich forested landscapes. This change is particularly pronounced in Myanmar, whose economy is developing at great speed after the end of decades-long economic and political isolation and armed conflicts. Interventions are needed to ensure that development is sustainable. Designing successful interventions requires spatially explicit knowledge of recent landscape changes. To provide such knowledge, we applied a landscape mosaic approach and analysed land system change in Tanintharyi Region in southern Myanmar between 2002 and 2016. Our findings show that nearly half of the study region experienced degradation of the vegetation cover, intensification of agricultural use, or a combination of both. Although intact forest was still the prevailing vegetation cover of land systems in Tanintharyi Region in 2016, it had suffered from degradation in wide parts of the region. Land systems without or with only extensive agricultural use in 2002 had become dominated by smallholders' shifting cultivation systems and permanent betel nut gardens and paddy rice fields by 2016. Elsewhere, smallholder dominated land systems were intensified through the expansion of oil palm and rubber plantations, pointing to potential displacement effects. The land system maps offer a sound basis for planning interventions to slow the degradation of biodiversity-rich forests and support smallholder farmers in coping with the fast-paced expansion of commercial cash crop plantations and its social and environmental impacts. Sustainable development in this global biodiversity hotspot requires careful land use planning to support nature and people, along with continued efforts for peace-building.

Farm-level land use responses to climate change among smallholder farmers in northern Benin, West Africa

ABSTRACT Adaptation to climate change often involves land use adjustments that can shape the sustainability of production systems. We conducted a survey to identify current farm-level land use strategies driven by climate change and their underlying socioeconomic determinants. Our study involved primary data collected on 336 maize producers randomly selected in 8 villages. We find that crop association/rotation, land reallocation/change of cropping patterns, water and soil conservation strategies, and field relocation are the main land use strategies driven by climate change at the farm-level. Farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics such as such as experience in agriculture, participation in off-farm activity, availability of farmland, organization membership, access to credit, contact with extension and household size have significant but differential effects on the choices of land use strategies. As a recommendation, extension services need to be revisited to better support smallholder farmers in adopting crops association/rotation and water and soil conservation methods. Policymakers can also tap into the opportunity of changes in cropping patterns to promote crops that are suitable for new climate conditions and have additional benefits for household food and nutritional security.

Variation in the carbon footprint of milk production on smallholder dairy farms in central Kenya

Milk production by smallholders in Africa has a high carbon footprint (CF) and is predicted to increase significantly in the coming decades. This study, based on data from a sample of 382 farms in central Kenya, is the first assessment of the CF of milk production in Sub-Saharan Africa based on a large dataset of actual farm management practices. The aims of the study were (1) to determine whether there are significant differences in the CF of farms with different feeding systems (i.e., zero-grazing, grazing and mixed systems), and (2) to identify factors associated with variability in CF between farms. This analysis is used to identify options for mitigating GHG emissions from Kenya’s growing dairy production. Average CF ranged between 2.19 and 3.13 kg CO2e/kg fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM), depending on the GWPs and allocation method used. Analysis based on variability in farm management showed that CF was similar between farms with zero-grazing and mixed feeding systems, and significantly higher on farms with grazing only feeding systems, but no difference was detected when input parameter uncertainty was considered. At individual cow level, variation in milk yields explained more than 70% of the variation in GHG intensity. At farm level, milk yield explained less than half of variation in CF. CF was correlated with feed characteristics, manure management practices and herd size and composition. In particular, the level of concentrate use was positively correlated with CF, and was the most important factor explaining variation in CF not attributable to variation in milk yield. Our findings suggest that promoting balanced feed rations and feeding concentrate according to cows’ needs across the lactation cycle could provide opportunities to both increase milk production and reduce the CF of milk production on smallholder farms in central Kenya. Supporting smallholder farmers to implement these mitigation options will require interventions at several levels in feed supply chains in the dairy sector.

Understanding the Implications of Alternative Bioenergy Crops to Support Smallholder Farmers in Brazil

Smallholders constitute more than three quarters of the world’s farmers, and despite their numbers, they commonly lack opportunities to advance their development status. Bioenergy production and consumption can help sustain smallholders’ energy needs and generate employment and income, but it also raises concerns over social justice and equity, especially where crops used for bioenergy could also be used for food. This perspective paper is grounded in a literature review related to three different crops in Brazil: sugarcane, landrace maize and sweet potato. It seeks to determine if these crops offer the potential to support smallholder farmers’ development in a more equitable way, focusing on opportunities for their use in bioenergy. We review the literature to identify policies shaping the smallholder development context in relation to these crops, assessing whose knowledge informs policy and institutional decision making, and highlighting the policy attention afforded to the different crops from different sectors. We further evaluate the literature on each crop in relation to water use and calorific value (i.e., food and energy). Our review indicates that while sugarcane has received the most policy and institutional attention, its development is largely anchored in research and development investments that support large-scale commercial farms and agri-businesses. Smallholders have not benefited or had the opportunity to engage in relevant policy decision making for sugarcane cultivation. At the same time, smallholders hold valuable untapped knowledge on the cultivation of sweet potato and landrace maize, both of which have the potential to generate development opportunities for smallholders. Our review suggests that the environmental impact of landrace maize and sweet potato in terms of water use is significantly lower than sugarcane, while they can generate more calories for energy or food consumption and offer diversification opportunities. Despite that these alternative crops offer considerable untapped potential to support rural development, more research is still needed to harness these benefits. Changes are needed to address inequities in policies, institutions and the types of knowledge informing decision making. Such changes need to afford smallholder farmers greater recognition and participation in decision making, so that the distribution of benefits from the three study crops can reach them to support their development better.

Role of Local Policies in Facilitating Adaptation of Smallholder Farming to Climate Change in Uganda

The research was funded by a USAID project entitled ‘Enhancing Climate Resilience of Agricultural Livelihoods’ that was implemented by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA in partnership with Makerere University Centre for Climate Research and Innovation (MUCCRI) and the National Agriculture Research Organization (NARO). The CGIAR program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) provided additional support. Abstract Smallholder farming in Sub-Saharan Africa is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and supportive local policies and plans are needed guide climate resilient farming systems. This study explores how local policies are enabling adaptation of smallholder farming to the impacts of climate change in Uganda. A mixed methods approach was used including review of policies and other literature, field assessments conducted Eastern and Central regions of Uganda. Data was collected from smallholder farmers, government officials and non-state actors at district, sub-county and village levels. Findings reveal that whereas Uganda has an elaborate national climate change policy framework that prioritizes the mainstreaming of climate change in policies and practices at all levels of government, development policies and plans at the local levels have not yet adequately incorporated climate change, and the adaptation practices adopted by smallholder farmers to address the negative impacts of climate change are more reactionary, and are not guided or influenced by local adaptation policies. Effective local adaptation policy and practice is constrained by non-inclusive policy formulation processes, institutional and human resource gaps, climate finance and unreliable climate information and advisory services. We suggest the strengthening local adaptive capacity through inclusive local adaptation policy formulation and implementation, improved climate information services and strong local institutional framework to support smallholder farmers build resilience to climate change. Keywords: climate risks, vulnerability, local adaption policies, resilient agriculture, Uganda DOI : 10.7176/JEES/9-11-09 Publication date: November 30 th 2019

Monitoring Changes in the Cultivation of Pigeonpea and Groundnut in Malawi Using Time Series Satellite Imagery for Sustainable Food Systems

Malawi, in south-eastern Africa, is one of the poorest countries in the world. Food security in the country hinges on rainfed systems in which maize and sorghum are staple cereals and groundnut and pigeonpea are now major grain legume crops. While the country has experienced a considerable reduction in forest lands, population growth and demand for food production have seen an increase in the area dedicated to agricultural crops. From 2010, pigeonpea developed into a major export crop, and is commonly intercropped with cereals or grown in double-up legume systems. Information on the spatial extent of these crops is useful for estimating food supply, understanding export potential, and planning policy changes as examples of various applications. Remote sensing analysis offers a number of efficient approaches to deliver spatial, reproducible data on land use and land cover (LULC) and changes therein. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) products (fortnightly and monthly) and derived phenological parameters assist in mapping cropland areas during the agricultural season, with explicit focus on redistributed farmland. Owing to its low revisit time and the availability of long-term period data, MODIS offers several advantages, e.g., the possibility of obtaining cloud-free Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) profile and an analysis using one methodology applied to one sensor at regular acquisition dates, avoiding incomparable results. To assess the expansion of areas used in the production of pigeonpea and groundnut resulting from the release of new varieties, the spatial distribution of cropland areas was mapped using MODIS NDVI 16-day time-series products (MOD13Q1) at a spatial resolution of 250 m for the years 2010–2011 and 2016–2017. The resultant cropland extent map was validated using intensive ground survey data. Pigeonpea is mostly grown in the southern dry districts of Mulanje, Phalombe, Chiradzulu, Blantyre and Mwanza and parts of Balaka and Chikwawa as a groundnut-pigeonpea intercrop, and sorghum-pigeonpea intercrop in Mzimba district. By 2016, groundnut extent had increased in Mwanza, Mulanje, and Phalombe and fallen in Mzimba. The result indicates that the area planted with pigeonpea had increased by 29% (75,000 ha) from 2010–2011 to 2016–2017. Pigeonpea expansion in recent years has resulted from major export opportunities to Asian countries like India, and its consumption by Asian expatriates all over the world. This study provides useful information for policy changes and the prioritization of resources allocated to sustainable food production and to support smallholder farmers.

Research and technology development in Southeast Asian economies are drifting away from agriculture and farmers’ needs

Purpose This paper aims to raise awareness on current shifting of R&D activities from agricultural-based Agriculture and agriculture-related Natural Sciences (ANS) to industrial-based Engineering, Computer, and Industry-related Sciences (ECI) in Southeast Asian (SEA) economies. This trend might cause stiffer challenges on effort to sustain food security in the region. Design/methodology/approach Five SEA countries were selected, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. R&D data were collected over the years 2001-2014. Collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics and correlation. Findings Malaysia has been in the process of shifting from ANS to ECI cluster, whereas Vietnam and Indonesia followed the trend but about a decade behind; meanwhile, the Philippines and Thailand kept their focus on ANS clusters. Within the ANS cluster, Malaysia and Thailand leaned towards Modern Biosciences and Modelling (MBM) sub-clusters. The Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia were more focused on Agriculture and Conventional Biosciences (ACB) sub-cluster. ACB is more relevant and affordable to smallholder farmers. Shifting of R&D priority correlated with GDP per capita of SEA countries. Within ANS cluster, R&D activity in MBM increased but ACB decreased as GDP per capita increased. Research limitations/implications Data used in this study were limited to accessible 2001-2014 data in five selected SEA economies. Therefore, there is an open possibility for future research on extended timeline using more sophisticated data analysis. Practical implications Agricultural technology development should be relevant to needs of and affordable to smallholder farmers, as they are the primary food producers in developing economies. Social implications If the R&D activities continue to drift away from farmer’s needs, there will be a possible drawback of widening gap between developed agricultural technologies and absorptive capacity of smallholder farmers. Government institutions should revisit their R&D priority as the current trend could cause a serious obstacle in maintaining food security in the SEA region. Originality/value This frontier study provides an early warning for government in SEA economies and other developing countries for balancing between R&D for supporting smallholder farmers in food production and for enhancing national economic growth.

Determinants of the competitiveness of smallholder African indigenous vegetable farmers in high-value agro-food chains in Kenya: A multivariate probit regression analysis

Smallholder farmers are excluded from efficient and effective participation in high-value agro-food market chains due to major competitiveness constraints and several market failures along these chains. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the competitiveness of smallholder farmers in a more coordinated and sustainable way that promote their effective and efficient participation in high-value agro-food market chains. In particular, the study aims at determining the main role of households’ capitals, institutional, and access-related factors in conditioning the decision of smallholder farmers of African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) to access pillars of competitiveness in high-value market chains (HVMCs). For this purpose, a unique household-level data from a total of 1232 rural and peri-urban AIV-producing households were surveyed, and the data obtained were analysed by using a multivariate probit model.The results suggest that about two thirds of smallholder AIV farmers had access to at least one pillar of competitiveness in HVMCs. The model results show the presence of inter-dependency of household level decisions to access multiple pillars of competitiveness in HVMCs. Furthermore, the results also reveal that coping with shocks, coupled with access to information on market prices and warnings of unexpected events, contract farming, certification and modern irrigation technologies are the main conditioning factors to the access of the pillars of competitiveness by smallholder farmers.The promotion and implementation of a well-founded mobile phone-based information access platforms, as well as effective and efficient livelihood strategies that support smallholder farmers to access pillars of competitiveness, is of critical importance towards overcoming the major competitiveness constraints along high-value agro-food chains.

The Role of Government Institutions in Supporting Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change in Gombe State, Nigeria

Climate change is now an everyday reality, with far reaching consequences, especially for poor agricultural communities, who suffer the most diverse effects of climate change. Over past few years, efforts have been diverted from reaction, to pre-emptive, in a bid to ensure that the most vulnerable can adapt to the challenges of climate change. Impacts of climate change are felt more by poor communities who depend on subsistence agriculture for survival. In order to adapt to climate change, there is need for this poor rural communities to be supported in various ways, by both government and non-government entities. This study investigates the role of government institutions in supporting climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in Gombe State, Nigeria. Primary data was generated using structured questionnaire. This was administered to 240 randomly selected members of the farming communities, local leaders and members of government institutions working on environmental management in the State. Data was analyzed using both descriptive and factor analysis methods. Results show that a number of factors are responsible for determining the government support towards adaptation in both crop and animal production among smallholder farmers. The study findings revealed different challenges encountered by crop farmers, livestock farmers and government institutions in trying to implement mechanisms of adaptation to climate change in Gombe State, Nigeria. The study recommended that government should engage rural smallholder farmers, non-governmental organizations and civil society in this effort, and that it should encourage local mechanisms in order to ensure sustainability of the adaptation efforts.

Review: Challenges and opportunities for revitalising smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa

South Africa is classified as a water-scarce country, and depends on agriculture for food production. The irrigation sector is the largest consumer of water in the country, accounting for about 62% of water utilisation, but also losing 30–40%. Given the threat of drought and climate change, efficient irrigation systems have become a necessity, especially in the smallholder farming sector where most losses occur. Smallholder irrigation schemes (SIS) were developed to improve rural livelihoods through sustainable food production for food security and poverty alleviation, but these development objectives remain largely unfulfilled. The objectives of this review were to assess challenges facing SIS and explore opportunities for revitalising the schemes. The focus was on government policy and strategies to support smallholder farmers. A review of government policy showed that although the needs and interests of smallholder farmers are high on the national agenda, there is insufficient financial support to the sector, suggesting that smallholder agriculture is not really seen as a potential driver of the economy. The core focus of the government on repairing irrigation infrastructure while neglecting the soft components relating to capacity building has partly been blamed for the failure of SIS in South Africa. Capacity building is one of the missing links in smallholder irrigation development and many failures have been attributed to lack of adequately trained farmers and extension staff, particularly in irrigation water management. Land tenure insecurity has been singled out as a major institutional challenge leading to poor performance of irrigation schemes. The diversity of schemes means that different kinds of interventions are needed to respond to varying farmers’ needs, resources and agricultural contexts. These findings point to the need to balance the soft and hard components of the irrigation schemes for sustainability. It is therefore evident that the government needs to review its priorities in revitalisation of SIS. Land tenure policies allowing increased access to arable land need to be developed urgently, together with the promotion of alternative cropping systems that are suitable forthe smallholder farming sector.

Constraints to smallholder agricultural production in the Western Cape, South Africa

Improving agricultural production remains a major challenge for smallholder farmers in South Africa. The enactment of the 1998 Water Act and subsequent water allocation reforms were meant to correct equity challenges of the past in water allocation and increase agricultural productivity in the rural sector. More than 20 years after the initiation of the processes smallholder farmers remain poor with limited agricultural productivity. With the advent of more frequent droughts and the ever increasing climate change threat, the need to find lasting solutions for smallholder agriculture remains a priority for the government. So far the emphasis has been placed on water allocation, but could this be the only challenge to smallholder farmer livelihoods? South Africa is currently experiencing one of the worst droughts in history. Smallholder farmers who are already faced with water shortages have been the worst hit. The research sought to untangle some of the complexities of improving smallholder farmer livelihoods in the Breede-Gouritz Catchment Management Area (BGCMA) in the Western Cape, one of the first two catchment management areas to be created in South Africa. The main aim of the study was to assess constraints in addition to water, to the success of smallholder farmers in improving livelihoods. The specific objectives were to determine how institutional policies limited smallholder farmers from accessing resources in the Western Cape; to identify constraints affecting smallholder farmer performance and participation in agricultural activities. Interviews with farmers and key informants in government and other relevant institutions were conducted to determine how institutional arrangements have influenced and impacted the success of smallholder farmers. Results indicated uncoordinated institutional processes to support smallholder farmers resulting in limited participation by smallholder farmers in policy and strategy formulation. Farmer livelihoods were constrained by lack of information, limited access to water and lack of funding. The results and recommendations of the study were shared with the BGCMA and other relevant institutions with the aim of influencing future policy formulation for smallholder farmer livelihoods. The institutions decided to address the information gap through collaborative effort. The process has resulted in the creation of better relationships and trust between the smallholder farmers and the institutions.

On developing a scale to measure chronic household seed insecurity in semi-arid Kenya and the implications for food security policy

Seed security is complementary and relational to food security; having access to seed that produces meaningful and resilient yields of culturally appropriate food is an integral aspect of food security for smallholder farmers. However, essential components of smallholder seed security continue to be underemphasized in food and seed policy. In this study, we analyze household and farm-level characteristics that may predict chronic seed insecurity in semi-arid eastern Kenya. In the process, we also present and test the Household Seed Insecurity Assessment Scale (HSIAS) designed to measure household chronic seed insecurity. Results suggest that mild chronic seed insecurity continues to be a problem in most households, hampering their ability to produce food. We found that older and more experienced farmers were more seed insecure and that farmer adoption of new varieties was associated with seed insecurity. Obtaining seed through local markets and informal giving was done evenly by all farmers while using agroshops was associated with greater seed insecurity in some instances. Key attributes of household seed (in)security identified in this study are used to inform seed and food policies that better support smallholder farmers in Kenya. With further development, the HSIAS has the potential to enhance local monitoring systems and government food and seed policy responses.

Determinants of Adoption of Wheat Production Technology Package by Smallholder Farmers: Evidences from Eastern Ethiopia

A study was conducted to analyze factors influencing adoption of wheat technology packages by smallholder farmers in Gurawa, Meta and Habro districts in eastern Ethiopia. The analysis was based on a household survey data collected from 136 randomly selected households. A Two-limit Tobit model was used to elucidate factors affecting adoption of technology packages measured based on an index derived from five components of wheat technologies which included row planting, pesticide application, use of improved varieties, and application of inorganic fertilizers, namely, Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) and Urea. Among the variables included in the model, variation in district, gender, age of the household head, education status of the household head, farm size, distance to market, distance to FTC (Farmers’ Training Centers), cooperative membership, dependency ratio, and annual income of the households were found to significantly affect the adoption of wheat technology packages. Policy makers, planners and development practitioners should give due attention to these determinants to support smallholder farmers in wheat production and enhance gains derived from it.

Why do Smallholder Farmers Apply Inorganic Fertilizers below the Recommended Rates? Empirical Evidence from Potato Production in Eastern Ethiopia

Evidences suggested that use levels of inorganic fertilizers in potato production in Ethiopia are below the recommended rates. This study is aimed at accessing factors contributing to this. The study utilized data collected from 171 randomly selected potato producing households. A two-limit Tobit model result revealed that variation in districts, access to irrigation, frequency of extension contact, and livestock holding significantly affected intensity of adoption of both DAP and Urea in potato production. In addition, access to credit and annual income significantly determined adoption intensity of DAP. It is therefore, essential to give due emphasis to these determinants in supporting smallholder farmers in order to enhance potato productivity.

DETERMINANTS OF ADOPTION OF POTATO PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE BY SMALLHOLDER FARMERS: EVIDENCES FROM EASTERN ETHIOPIA

Potato production plays an important role in improving household income and nutrition and thereby contributes to food security. Despite of this, the current productivity of the crop is below the potential. Low level of use of improved potato technology package is among the causes for low productivity. In this context, this study analysed the factors influencing adoption of potato technology package by smallholder farmers in Gurawa, Haramaya, Kombolcha, Meta, and Habro districts of Eastern Ethiopia. The analysis was based on a household survey conducted on 214 randomly selected potato growing households. A two-limit Tobit model was used to analyse the factors affecting adoption which is measured in an index computed from five components of the technology package. Variation in districts, access to irrigation, farm size, membership to cooperatives, and annual income of the households were found to significantly affect the adoption of potato technology package. Policy makers, planners and development practitioners are required to give due attention to these determinants in order to support smallholder farmers in production and productivity improvements from potato production.

Parasitic weed incidence and related economic losses in rice in Africa

Parasitic weeds pose increasing threats to rain-fed rice production in Africa. Most important species are Striga asiatica, S. aspera and S. hermonthica in rain-fed uplands, and Rhamphicarpa fistulosa in rain-fed lowlands. Information on the regional spread and economic importance of parasitic weeds in cereal production systems is scant. This article presents the first multi-species, multi-country, single-crop impact assessment of parasitic weeds in Africa. A systematic search of public international and national herbaria and the scientific literature was conducted to collect all available data on the regional distribution, incidences and related yield losses of the most important parasitic weeds in rice. Herbaria specimens were geo-referenced and these coordinates were overlapped with rain-fed rice areas. Probabilistic diffusion waves of parasitic weeds were generated to derive most likely incidence values. Estimates from this spatial analysis were then combined with secondary data from the literature into a stochastic impact assessment model to generate a confidence interval of the likely economic impact per country and for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. Rhamphicarpa fistulosa occurs in at least 36 African countries, 28 of which produce rice in rain-fed lowlands where this species thrives. Striga hermonthica is found in at least 32 countries, Striga asiatica in at least 44 and S. aspera in at least 17. A total of 50 countries have at least one of these three species of Striga, 31 of which produce rice in the rain-fed uplands where these species can be encountered. An estimated 1.34 million ha of rain-fed rice is infested with at least one species of a parasitic weed in Africa. Our stochastic model estimates that annual economic losses inflicted by all parasitic weeds exceeds, with 95% certainty, a minimum value of US $111 million and most likely reaches roughly US $200 million and increases by US $30 million annually. To reverse this trend and support small-holder rice farmers in Africa with effective, sustainable and affordable solutions for control, targeted investments in research, development and capacity building are required. The top-10 priority countries where such investments would probably have the highest return are Nigeria, Guinea, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, Cameroon, Tanzania, Madagascar, Uganda, Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso.

The Windmill Approach

A common theoretical approach for understanding smallholder farmers' choice of sales arrangements is transaction cost economics (TCE), which usually focuses on a single transaction. However, farmers produce different crops and participate in several value chains simultaneously. Based on two case studies in central Mozambique, the authors propose an analytical framework that pays attention to both the production and the transaction strategies of farmers. This Windmill Approach acknowledges that farmers decide on participating in various value chains on the basis of multiple objectives and aspirations. Farmers prioritize the allocation of available resources towards the sustainability of the whole farm. Policy to support smallholder farmers' market access should not focus on single transactions, but on the combination of farming system and value chain costs and benefits.