Supervisor-rated Performance Research Articles

Faking and the validity of conscientiousness: A Monte Carlo investigation.

The article reports the findings from a Monte Carlo investigation examining the impact of faking on the criterion-related validity of Conscientiousness for predicting supervisory ratings of job performance. Based on a review of faking literature, 6 parameters were manipulated in order to model 4,500 distinct faking conditions (5 [magnitude] x 5 [proportion] x 4 [variability] x 3 [faking-Conscientiousness relationship] x 3 [faking-performance relationship] x 5 [selection ratio]). Overall, the results indicated that validity change is significantly affected by all 6 faking parameters, with the relationship between faking and performance, the proportion of fakers in the sample, and the magnitude of faking having the strongest effect on validity change. Additionally, the association between several of the parameters and changes in criterion-related validity was conditional on the faking-performance relationship. The results are discussed in terms of their practical and theoretical implications for using personality testing for employee selection.

Male and female managers' ability to read emotions: Relationships with supervisor's performance ratings and subordinates' satisfaction ratings

The present study examines the direct and indirect effect of managers' accuracy in ‘reading’ non‐verbal emotional expressions and their supervisors' performance ratings and subordinates' satisfaction with the manager. Data from working managers and their supervisors and subordinates were used to test the study's hypotheses. Although managers' accuracy was not directly related to others' ratings, a significant interactive effect was found: Female but not male managers who more accurately perceived non‐verbal emotional expressions received higher performance ratings from their supervisor and higher satisfaction ratings from their subordinates, perhaps due to gender stereotypes prescribing emotional sensitivity to female managers. Furthermore, how managers used emotional information to enhance subordinates' satisfaction varied for female and male managers. Results suggested that male managers who were more accurate at emotion perception received higher satisfaction ratings if they used the information to be more persuasive, whereas more emotionally perceptive female managers received higher satisfaction ratings when they demonstrated more supportiveness.

The Validity of Assessment Centres for the Prediction of Supervisory Performance Ratings: A meta‐analysis

The current meta‐analysis of the selection validity of assessment centres aims to update an earlier meta‐analysis of assessment centre validity. To this end, we retrieved 26 studies and 27 validity coefficients (N=5850) relating the Overall Assessment Rating (OAR) to supervisory performance ratings. The current study obtained a corrected correlation of .28 between the OAR and supervisory job performance ratings (95% confidence interval .24≤ρ≤.32). It is further suggested that this validity estimate is likely to be conservative given that assessment centre validities tend to be affected by indirect range restriction.

Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Measure†

This study developed and tested a theory-based measure of authentic leadership using five separate samples obtained from China, Kenya, and the United States. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a higher order, multidimensional model of the authentic leadership construct (the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire [ALQ]) comprising leader self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing. Structural equation modeling (SEM) demonstrated the predictive validity for the ALQ measure for important work-related attitudes and behaviors, beyond what ethical and transformational leadership offered. Finally, results revealed a positive relationship between authentic leadership and supervisor-rated performance. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Psychosocial development and leader performance of military officer cadets

Efforts to educate and develop future military officers aim to produce highly competent, ethical and effective leaders to serve the nation. But while there is general agreement about desired outcomes, the underlying developmental processes associated with these outcomes are not well understood. How do we grow such leaders? This paper reports on a longitudinal study of West Point college students over four years, addressing three questions: (1) do military officer-cadets grow or change in their basic level of psychosocial development [Kegan, R. (1982). The Evolving Self: Problem and Process in Human Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.], (2) is the level of psychosocial development related to performance as leaders, and (3) do activities in high school predict later psychosocial development? Two groups of cadets were studied from their freshman or sophomore year to their senior year at the academy. Results show significant positive developmental growth over time for 47% of study participants, with most of this growth occurring from sophomore to senior year. Furthermore, psychosocial development predicts several peer, subordinate and supervisor ratings of cadet performance as leaders during the upperclass (junior and senior) years, a time when cadets take on substantial leadership roles. In addition, early performance ratings by high school teachers, as well as active participation in high school extracurricular activities both predict psychosocial development levels for freshman and sophomores. These findings lend support to Kegan's theoretical model, and suggest that greater attention be paid to these basic processes of human psychosocial development that can influence leader performance in important ways.

The Value of Common Perspectives in Self-Reported Appraisals

This article uses the work of Smircich and Chesser on direct and meta-perspectives (i.e., points of view) to test the correspondence between self-reported and supervisory ratings of performance. Results from two field studies indicate a higher level of self-supervisor rating correlation when using a common perspective. Similar results were obtained using an alternative measure of rating correspondence. The results provide evidence that researchers using self-reports of performance as surrogates for archival performance data should ask respondents for their supervisor's assessment of their performance rather than for their own assessment. The practical implications of these results for field research are discussed.

Personality and Cognitive Ability as Predictors of Typical and Maximum Managerial Performance

Despite long-established distinctions between typical and maximum performance variables on both the predictor and criterion side, little previous research has directly addressed the extent to which these distinctions translate into differential predictor-criterion relationships. Using a sample of candidates for managerial positions, we examined relations of predictors conceptually linked to typical (i.e., broad, narrow, and compound personality traits) and maximum (i.e., broad and narrow cognitive abilities) performance with corresponding criterion measures (N = 84–873). Supervisory ratings of managerial performance served as the typical performance criterion, whereas maximum performance was assessed via an assessment center. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the distinction between typical and maximum performance. Results also confirmed our hypothesis that cognitive abilities are more strongly correlated with maximum performance than with typical performance and largely supported the expectation of the opposite pattern with personality traits as predictors.

The moderating role of employee positive well being on the relation between job satisfaction and job performance.

This research provides further clarification to the age-old quest to better understand the happy/productive worker thesis. Using data from 109 managers employed by a large (over 5000 employees) customer services organization on the West Coast of the United States, both job satisfaction (r=.36, p<.01, 95% CI=.18 to .52) and psychological well-being (PWB; r=.43, p<.01, 95% CI=.26 to .58) were associated with supervisory performance ratings. Using Fredrickson's (2001) broaden-and-build model as the theoretical base, the authors found that PWB moderates the relation between job satisfaction and job performance. Consistent with Fredrickson's model, performance was highest when employees reported high scores on both PWB and job satisfaction. This moderating effect of PWB may account for some of the inconsistent results of previous studies.

Transformational leadership in an acquisition: A field study of employees

This field study of employees involved in a major acquisition integration addressed the relationships that leadership and climate had with subordinate acquisition acceptance, performance, and job satisfaction in an uncertain environment. Transformational leadership was positively related to acquisition acceptance, supervisor-rated performance, and job satisfaction ( p < .01). Transformational leaders also impacted subordinate outcomes through the perceived climate they created for goal clarity and support for creative thinking. Both goal clarity and support for creative thinking partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction ( p < .01; N = 447). Goal clarity did not mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and performance, but was positively related to performance ( p < .05; N = 344). Support for creative thinking fully mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and acquisition acceptance ( p < .01; N = 432). Implications for future research and for managers engaged in acquisition integrations are discussed.

Polychronicity, Big Five Personality Dimensions, and Sales Performance

Hypothesized relations among polychronicity, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and supervisor performance ratings were developed and tested in a sample of 174 computer retail sales employees. Polychronicity was significantly related to supervisor ratings of customer service (r = .22), sales performance (r = .22), and overall performance (r = .23). Although Conscientiousness was unrelated to the performance outcomes, Extraversion was significantly related to supervisor ratings of customer service (r = .27), sales performance (r = .20), and overall performance (r = .25). In addition, polychronicity provided incremental validity above the contribution of Big Five personality dimensions in predicting supervisor ratings of customer service, sales performance, and overall performance. Future directions for research examining relations between polychronicity and job performance across different work settings are discussed.

Multi‐source perspectives of self‐esteem, performance ratings, and source agreement

PurposeTo examine the relationship between self‐esteem and job performance using others' perceptions of self‐esteem and to examine agreement in ratings of self‐esteem across sources.Design/methodology/approachA sample of 143 sales representatives, 113 supervisors, 420 peers, 435 customers, and 510 family and friends completed Rosenberg's measure of self‐esteem and a measure of acquaintanceship. Peers and supervisors rated the subjects' job performance. Correlations and hierarchical regression were used to explore the relationships.FindingsCustomer, peer, and supervisor perceptions of subjects' self‐esteem related significantly to peer and supervisor performance ratings, whereas self and family/friends perceptions did not. There was limited support for the acquaintanceship effect (greater agreement across sources when familiarity is greater), while context affected agreement (same context sources had greater agreement).Practical implicationsThe study highlights the importance of looking at an employee from a variety of perspectives. Also, training employees to develop self‐enhancing behaviors may enhance their outcomes. Finally, training raters that their perceptions of co‐workers' self‐esteem may influence evaluations of performance could reduce unconscious errors.Originality/valueIf this had been a traditional study measuring self‐esteem's impact on performance ratings, no significant relationships could have been reported since individuals' perceptions of their own self‐esteem were not valid predictors of performance ratings. It may be the individual's public self‐esteem (e.g. impression management skills) that influences performance ratings. In particular, workplace sources perceived high self‐esteem as being important to job performance. The validity of self‐esteem may be understated through reliance on the self‐report method alone.

Telecommuting, control, and boundary management: Correlates of policy use and practice, job control, and work–family effectiveness

We examine professionals’ use of telecommuting, perceptions of psychological job control, and boundary management strategies. We contend that work–family research should distinguish between descriptions of flexibility use (formal telecommuting policy user, amount of telecommuting practiced) and how the individual psychologically experiences flexibility (perceived control over where, when, and how one works, boundary management strategies regarding separation between work and family roles). Survey and interview data were collected from 245 professionals in two Fortune 500 firms with telework policies. Employees who perceived greater psychological job control had significantly lower turnover intentions, family–work conflict, and depression. Boundary management strategies higher on integration were positively related to family–work conflict. Although we found a main effect for formal policy use and higher depression, an interaction existed where women users with children had lower depression. Formal use positively related to supervisor performance ratings. Future research should distinguish between descriptive use and psychological experiences of flexibility.

SELF‐MONITORING AS A MODERATOR OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PERFORMANCE

This study examined the hypothesis that self‐monitoring moderates the relationship between Big Five personality traits and interpersonal performance. The findings from a sample of 102 employed Executive MBA students reveal that when self‐monitoring was high the relationships between 3 of the Big Five personality traits (Extraversion, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experience) and supervisory ratings of interpersonal performance were attenuated. These effects were replicated using peer ratings of interpersonal performance for Extraversion and Emotional Stability but not for Openness to Experience. Further, as expected, self‐monitoring did not moderate the relationships between personality traits and supervisory or peer ratings of task performance. Implications for future research in the area of personality and other motivational theories are discussed.

The Existence and Nature of Racial Bias in Supervisory Ratings.

The purpose of this article is to facilitate a reconsideration of what the authors consider to be a mistaken belief among personnel psychologists--the belief that supervisory ratings of job performance are not biased on the basis of race. In this article, the authors reviewed the current literature, reexamined the data, and concluded that the research on which this mistaken belief is based clearly demonstrates that racial bias may indeed exist and is significant, both in statistical and practical terms.

Broad Versus Narrow Facets of Integrity: Predictive Validity and Subgroup Differences

Selection researchers continue to debate the relative value of broad versus narrow personality constructs. We investigated whether broad and narrow dimensions of integrity are differentially related to the performance of customer service managers (N = 152). A judgmental sort of items from a well-known overt integrity test revealed 8 distinct facets of integrity. Facet correlations with supervisor ratings of performance ranged from -.16 to .18. Two facets, honesty image and norms of general dishonesty, had stronger relationship with performance than did the broad integrity scale, and their multiple correlation was about 3 times larger than the validity coefficient of the broad scale. The identified facets of integrity also varied in the subgroup differences they produced (e.g., d = -0.08 to 0.77 for race), with the 2 most predictive facets yielding somewhat larger ethnic group differences than many of the other facets. Overall results suggest that integrity is a multifaceted construct and that the prediction and understanding of behavior at work may be improved by focusing on more narrowly defined dimensions of integrity.

Dimensionality and Validity of a Structured Telephone Reference Check Procedure

A structured telephone reference check (STRC) was developed to assess three job‐relevant personality/interpersonal dimensions (Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, customer focus) for a family of entry‐level, customer‐contact jobs within a service organization. The procedure was designed to be brief (a 10–15 minute telephone call with each referee) and easy to administer by untrained recruitment staff. Confirmatory factor analyses on referee ratings for 223 applicants indicated that referees were able to adequately discriminate between dimensions of applicants' past performance. A predictive, criterion‐related validation study on those applicants who were hired demonstrated that the STRC predicted supervisory ratings of job performance (r= .25, p &lt; .01, uncorrected; .36 corrected for range restriction and criterion unreliability). No evidence was found that referees with shorter working relationships with applicants provided less valid ratings.

Interactive effects of impression management and organizational politics on job performance

AbstractThe purpose of this research was to explore the interactive effect of organizational politics and impression management on supervisor ratings of employee performance. We hypothesized that the negative relationship between organizational politics and supervisor‐rated performance is weaker among employees who are high in impression management than among those low in impression management. Data were collected from a matched sample of 112 white‐collar employees and their supervisors. Results indicated that the interaction of organizational politics and impression management explained a significant incremental amount of variance in supervisor ratings of employee performance. These findings demonstrated that the extent to which an individual engaged in impression management in a non‐political atmosphere may have been a key component to receiving favorable performance ratings. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Self and supervisor ratings of performance

This paper aims at exploring the relationship between self‐rated performance and immediate‐supervisor rated performance in the United Arab Emirates. A sample of 1,285 participants‐ employees and managers‐ were surveyed using self‐administered questionnaire. The results revealed a clear gap between employees’ perceptions of their performance and their managers’ perceptions. The implications of the results for both managers and researchers are also discussed in the paper.

On the Trait Antecedents and Outcomes of Service Worker Job Resourcefulness: A Hierarchical Model Approach

In a series of three studies, a four-level hierarchical model of personality was employed to identify the antecedents and three validating criteria of a newly developed trait labeledjob resourcefulness (JR). JR is defined as an enduring disposition to garner scarce resources and overcome obstacles in pursuit of job-related goals. Across three service contexts, JR was shown to predict customer orientation, self-rated performance, and supervisor-rated performance. The results also revealed that the hierarchical model accounted for more variance in performance ratings than one version of the 5-Factor Model of personality. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for selecting high-performing service employees.

Validity Evidence Linking Polychronicity and Big Five Personality Dimensions to Absence, Lateness, and Supervisory Performance Ratings

This study developed criterion and construct validity evidence for polychronicity, which is the extent to which people prefer to be engaged in two or more tasks or activities at the same time. Hypothesized relationships between polychronicity and lateness, absence, and supervisory ratings of performance were developed and tested in a heterogenous field sample of 181 train operators. Results indicated that polychronicity was significantly related to absence (r = .25), lateness (r = .19), and supervisory performance ratings (r = -.17). Hypothesized Big Five personality dimensions (Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Neuroticism) were also significantly associated with absence, but not lateness. Specifically, absence was significantly related to Conscientiousness (r = -.23), Extraversion (r = .15), and Neuroticism (r = .19). In addition, polychronicity accounted for variance in absence and lateness beyond that accounted for by hypothesized Big Five personality dimensions, cognitive ability, and demographic characteristics. Future research directions for work on polychronicity are discussed.