Superhydrophilic TiO2 Research Articles

TiO2 Nanotube Arrays Inside Ultrafine Ti Tubes with an Aspect Ratio of 2500 for Sensing Needles: The Bubble Effect in a Confined Space.

Capillary metal tubes have attracted considerable interest for flexible electronics, portable devices, trace sampling, and detection. Tailoring the microstructure and wettability inside the capillary tubes is of paramount importance, yet it presents great difficulty because of the spatial confinement. Here, the coupling effect is revealed between the fluidic and electric field induced by bubble motion in a confined space during anodic oxidation. By controlling the bubble regeneration and flow rate, uniform and superhydrophilic TiO2 nanotube arrays are developed throughout the inner surface of an ultrafine Ti tube with a diameter of 0.4mm and length of 1000mm, equivalent to an aspect ratio of 2500 that is the largest value being ever reported. The inner surface of a capillary tube is further coated with a polytetrafluoroethylene layer and explored as a sensing needle for liquid detection in terms of concentration and species. This study provides an innovative approach to tailor the microstructure and wettability in a confined space for functional capillary tubes.

Designing Co-coordinated phytic acid 3D network structure for superhydrophilic property of TiO2 nanoparticles

Traditionally, nano-TiO2 as one of the hydrophilic materials has garnered significant attention due to its inherent stability, non-toxicity, and abundance. However, its limited number of hydroxyl groups fails to meet the actual needs for superhydrophilic applications. Therefore, it is crucial to explore a simple and efficient method to introduce more hydroxyl groups to enhance the hydrophilicity of nano-TiO2. In this work, hydroxyl‑rich phytic acid (Pa) was introduced into the surface of nano-TiO2 and a 3D network structure of Co-coordinated phytic acid was further constructed to extremely enhance the hydrophilicity and stability of nano-TiO2. The TiO2@Pa-Co suspension was prepared by adsorbing hydroxyl‑rich Pa molecules on the surface of nano-TiO2 and assembling Co-coordinated Pa and then modified onto a glass slide by a conventional spin-coating method to obtain TiO2@Pa-Co thin film. The hydrophilic performance tests demonstrated that the TiO2@Pa-Co thin film presented innate superhydrophilic properties, as evidenced by a water contact angle of 2.0°, significantly smaller than that of the blank TiO2 (65.0°) and TiO2@Pa (29.1°) thin films. Notably, it also displays good durability, corrosion resistance, and anti-fogging properties. The superhydrophilic performances can be attributed to the ability of phytic acid to offer a large number of hydroxyl groups for improving the hydrophilicity of TiO2, while the Co ions act as a bridge, connecting with Pa and further construct a 3D network structure for the enhanced hydrophilic stability of TiO2. This study presents an inventive design concept to prepare superhydrophilic and stable TiO2 thin film by developing an organo-metallic coordination layer.

One-step fabrication of robust Stenocara beetle-inspired membrane deriving from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste for enhancing emulsion separation

The purification of emulsified water from waste oil has become a major research topic. Stenocara beetle-inspired wettable membranes have emerged as separating-efficient designs for purification of oil due to surface energy difference and surface roughness driven demulsification, but they are still suffering from tedious preparation and low robustness. Herein, a one-step electrospinning/electrospraying process was employed to construct Stenocara beetle-like membrane using waste PET and tetrabutyl titanate (TBT) as raw materials for water-in-oil emulsion separation. Specifically, the synchronized deposition process combines electrospinning high-hydrophobic PET fiber membrane and electrospraying superhydrophilic TiO2 particles (superhydrophilic bumps) generated from hydrolysis of TBT on the PET membrane surface, leading to a similar structure to Stenocara beetle. During the separation process, the bumpy superhydrophilic TiO2 particles can capture and aggregate tiny water droplets even though the droplet size is smaller than the membrane pore size. Moreover, this Stenocara beetle-like structure exists both on the surface and interior of the samples, resulting in the boosted demulsification ability and excellent separation efficiency up to 99.8 % and flux as high as 6392 L m-2h−1. Stenocara beetle-like membrane also exhibits strong mechanical properties and strain of the membrane is up to 128.8 %. Even after the friction test, the membrane maintained cycling stability and abrasion resistance with separation flux higher than 3500 L m-2h−1. Overall, this efficient one-step strategy can open up new avenues to fabricate advanced superwetting membranes in the field of emulsion separation.

Visible light-induced photocatalytic and antibacterial adhesion properties of superhydrophilic TiO2 nanoparticles

Bacterial infections triggered by patient or healthcare worker contact with surfaces are a major cause of medically acquired infections. By controlling the kinetics of tetrabutyl titanate hydrolysis and condensation during the sol–gel process, it is possible to regulate the content of Ti3+ and oxygen vacancies (OVs) in TiO2, and adjust the associated visible light-induced photocatalytic performance and anti-bacterial adhesion properties. The results have shown that the Ti3+ content in TiO2 was 9.87% at the calcination temperature of the reaction system was 300 °C and pH was 1.0, corresponding to optimal photocatalytic and hydrophilic properties. The formation of a hydrated layer on the superhydrophilic surface provided resistance to bacterial adhesion, preventing cross-contamination on high-touch surfaces. The excellent photocatalytic self-cleaning performance and anti-bacterial adhesion properties can be attributed to synergistic effects associated with the high specific surface area of TiO2 nanoparticles, the mesoporous structure, and the presence of Ti3+ and OVs. The formation of superhydrophilic self-cleaning surfaces under visible light can serve as the basis for the development of a new class of anti-bacterial adhesion materials.

Surface modification of TiNb alloys by hydrothermal-precalcification treatment and its excellent in vitro osteogenic bioactivity

The superb comprehensive mechanical properties of titanium and its alloys make them ideal materials for artificial bone repair. However, the osseointegration between normal tissue and implant is lengthy due to the relatively poor surface osteogenic bioactivity of titanium-based materials. For the sake of accelerating the bone healing process, surface modification for the titanium- based implant is therefore of great necessity. In this paper, the novel [Formula: see text]-typed TiNb alloy with good biocompatibility was modified by a simple hydrothermal-precalcification method. The experimental results demonstrate that these hydrothermally prepared TiNb alloys were coated by a superhydrophilic Nb-doped TiO2 film with a hierarchical micro-nanostructure. After subsequent pre-calcification treatment, calcium and phosphorus species with low content were successfully introduced into the film without morphological change. The simulated body fluid (SBF) soaking experiments show that the TiNb alloy with the two-step surface treatment represented excellent in vitro bioactivity. After incubating in SBF for only 1 day, the TiNb alloy surface was thoroughly coated with a layer of newly formed spherical hydroxyapatite clusters. Comparatively, no obvious hydroxyapatite was deposited on the TiNb alloy surface with the one-step hydrothermal treatment even after five days of incubation in SBF. As a result, the hydrothermal–precalcification treatment is an ideal method to improve the osteogenic bioactivity of TiNb alloy, which can be further extended to surface modification of other titanium-based implant materials.

Surface modification of TiTa alloy by hydrothermal-precalcification treatment and its excellent apatite-forming inductivity

TiTa alloys are ideal candidate materials for biomedical implants due to their good biocompatibility and low elastic modulus. However, the poor surface bioactivity affects their clinical efficacy. In this work, a facile two-step hydrothermal-precalcification route was employed to boost the bioactivity of TiTa alloy. A super-hydrophilic Ta-containing TiO2 film with hierarchical micro/nanostructure was first constructed on the surface of the TiTa alloy via hydrothermal treatment. After the subsequent precalcification treatment, calcium and phosphorus species with low content were introduced into the film without morphological changes. The simulated body fluid (SBF) soaking tests demonstrated that the induction formation time of bone-like apatite was greatly reduced from 18 days to only 1 day for TiTa alloy with two-step surface treatment. The results suggest that the hydrothermal-precalcification treatment is a promising approach for improving the osteoinductive activity of titanium-based implant materials.

Reactively-sputtered super-hydrophilic ultra-thin titania films deposited at 120 °C

Abstract We investigate super-hydrophilic TiO2 (titania) films for concentrated solar-thermal power applications. Reactive magnetron sputtering has been used to deposit 8 to 12 nm thick titania thin films onto borosilicate microscope glass slides, low-Fe extra-clear architectural glass, or Si(100) wafers with a 500 nm thick thermal SiO2 layer. The effects of deposition temperature and O2 fraction of the O2/Ar working gas were investigated. We demonstrate the importance of the O2 fraction for obtaining optically transparent, super-hydrophilic (contact angle below 1°) thin films. In particular, we show that as the O2 fraction increases, contact angle decreases, obtaining super-hydrophilic titania thin films at deposition temperatures as low as 120 °C. Our work enables to develop low thermal budget cost-efficient industrial synthesis processes, paving the way for commercial applications.

A UV-Resistant Heterogeneous Wettability Patterned Surface.

Preparing UV-resistant heterogeneous wettability patterns is critical for the practical application of surfaces with heterogeneous wettability. However, combining UV-resistant superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic materials on heterogeneous surfaces is challenging. Inspired by the structure of cell membranes, a UV-resistant heterogeneous wettability-patterned surface (UPS) is designed via laser ablation of the coating of multilayer structures. UV-resistant superhydrophobic silica patterns can be created in situ on surfaces covered with superhydrophilic TiO2 nanoparticles. The UV resistance time of the UPS with a TiO2 -based surface is more than two orders of magnitude higher than that obtained with other surface molecular modification methods that require a mask. The cell-membrane-like structure of the UPS regulates the migration of internal siloxane chain segments in the hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions of the surface. The UPS enables efficient patterning of functional materials under UV irradiation, controlling the wetting behavior of liquids in open-air systems. Furthermore, its heterogeneous wettability remains stable even after 50h of intense UV irradiation (365nm, 500mW cm-2 ). These UV-resistant heterogeneous wettability patterned surfaces will likely be applied in microfluidics, cell culture, energy conversion, and water collection in the future. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Highly transparent, superhydrophilic and high-temperature stable anatase phase TiO2

Stable anatase phase of TiO2 above 700 °C plays a very important role in the fields of photocatalysis, antibacterial, self-cleaning and solar cells etc. However, the stabilization of the anatase phase of TiO2 at higher temperatures has been very challenging so far. Here, we report a glancing angle deposition (GLAD) employing e-beam evaporation to fabricate slanted nanorods, vertical nanorods, and zig-zag nanorods of TiO2, which show the stabilization of the anatase phase up to 1000 °C. The amorphous nature of the substrate and least oxygen vacancy in the TiO2 are found to be the major cause for the thermal stabilization of the anatase phase. All annealed samples were found to be superhydrophilic when measured immediately after annealing, while the dark storage transforms the samples to hydrophilic. Nevertheless, UV exposure for 10 min reverted them to superhydrophilic. FTIR studies were performed on the samples to understand the role of surface hydrocarbons in the transition from hydrophobic to hydrophilic states. The samples show a transmittance ∼90% in the visible spectrum. The simultaneous existence of a highly transparent, superhydorphilic and high temperature stable anatase TiO2 can give a boost to several fields e.g., smart windows/doors, self-cleaning coatings, etc.

Simple and Ultrahigh Efficient Superhydrophilic Polydopamine-coated TiO2 Cotton for Oil–water Separation

Oil–water mixing has brought many problems to a society, and it is of great significance to develop a simple, convenient, efficient, and durable separation material to solve the problem of oil–water mixing. In this paper, modified cottons were successfully prepared using polydopamine as the in situ mineralization site of TiO2 nanoparticles combined with synergistic crosslinking with KH550. A large number of hydrophilic groups endowed the cotton with superhydrophilic ability, which greatly shortened its water spreading time. The prepared modified cotton could be successfully separated from oil and water, and still had a separation efficiency of 99.999% after 50 cycles. In addition, after 24 h immersion in 1 M HCl, NaOH, and NaCl solutions and 50 abrasion experiments, the modified cotton showed excellent oil–water separation ability, and the separation efficiency was above 99.990%. Successfully provided a simple preparation method to prepare high-efficiency and clean cottons for oil–water separation.

Pool boiling enhancement via biphilic surface comprising superhydrophilic TiO2 and superhydrophobic Teflon arrays

The ever-increasing power density overloads the heat removal capability of miniaturized power electronic devices and thus an efficient liquid cooling method needs to be strategized. Herein, we introduce a biphilic surface consisting of both superhydrophilic TiO2 and superhydrophobic Teflon. The purpose of this unique combination is to decrease the superheat (Tsat) by efficiently releasing vapor bubbles via the superhydrophobic surface and to increase the critical heat flux (CHF) using efficient wetting supplied by the superhydrophilic surface. The superhydrophilic TiO2 layer was deposited by the room temperature aerosol deposition method, whereas the superhydrophobic Teflon dots were deposited by the atmospheric supersonic cold spraying method. Each Teflon dot was 1 mm in diameter and the dots were patterned in the form of n×n arrays, where n varied from 1 to 5. The optimal CHF (187 kW·m−2), superheat, and effective heat transfer coefficient (4.6 kW·m−2·k−1) were observed for the 4 × 4 sample, beyond which the cooling effect deteriorated because of the excessive area covered by the Teflon dots. While the Teflon dots facilitated efficient bubble release, securing sufficient flow passage with the aid of a hydrophilic wetting area was also critical; thus the combination of the superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic surfaces was optimally balanced.

Mass transfer mechanism during bubble evolution on the surface of photoelectrode

The limitation of the transfer of gas products within the photocatalytic system is the key to the efficiency of the water splitting, which is directly influenced by the bubble evolution process on the catalyst surface. In this study, the entire process of bubble evolution on the surface of a superhydrophilic TiO2 photoelectrode was simultaneously measured visually and electrochemically. The bubble growth and detachment characteristics were investigated under different laser powers and constant bias voltages. An expression for the bubble coverage characterized by the bubble radius and photocurrent, which is applicable to the photoelectrocatalytic water splitting, was proposed to accurately obtain the mass transfer coefficient during bubble evolution. The mass transfer mechanism of gas product transfer in the low current density range dominated by single-phase free convection was revealed. The mass transfer coefficient was found to increase in the inertia-controlled phase and decrease in the chemical reaction-controlled phase of bubble growth. Furthermore, a method to accelerate bubble detachment from the photoelectrode surface by periodic illumination was proposed, which could significantly enhance the gas product transfer process.

Enhanced photocatalytic activity of highly transparent superhydrophilic doped TiO2 thin films for improving the self-cleaning property of solar panel covers

Undoped and metal doped nanocrystalline TiO2 transparent thin films were synthesized on glass substrates via sol-gel/dip-coating method. TiO2 thin film coatings can be applied to the surfaces of solar panels to impart self-cleaning properties to them. The structural and optical properties of few nanometer-thick films were characterized by XRD, SEM, CA, AFM, XPS, and UV–Vis spectrophotometry techniques. The stoichiometric TiO2 films crystallized in anatase phase, with a particle size of ∼100 nm, which were uniformly distributed on the surface. The prepared films with a roughness of ∼1–5 nm, increased the hydrophilicity of the glass surface. Reducing the amount of Ti precursor (X) favored the improvement of film quality. To improve the photocatalytic activity of the TiO2 thin film, it was doped with Ni, Cd, Mo, Bi and Sr metal ions. The effect of metal doping on the photocatalytic activity of the films was investigated using the degradation process of methylene blue (MB) dye as the model contaminant. Among the prepared coatings, the Sr–TiO2 film showed the highest efficiency for MB degradation. It increased the dye degradation efficiency of the films under both UV and Vis lights. The kinetic investigations also showed that the degradation of MB by TiO2 and M − TiO2 films obeyed the pseudo-first order kinetics.

Photocatalytic and Superhydrophilic TiO2‐SiO2 Coatings on Marble for Self‐Cleaning Applications

AbstractThe application of photocatalytic and self‐cleaning titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanomaterials coating on the stone of architectural heritage (particularly on marble) can be used to preserve their aesthetic qualities. The present work describes the effect of dipping time on the wetting property of coatings and the effect of UV irradiation on the coating in terms of hydrophilicity. The suspension of TiO2‐SiO2 is prepared by adding 30–50 nm in size TiO2 particles in the sol–gel processed SiO2 solution. The water contact angle (WCA) decreases with increasing dipping time of piece of marble in TiO2 – SiO2 suspension. Also the hydrophilicity of coating increases with increasing UV illumination time. The 2D and 3D laser microscope analysis revealed surface structure and stable surface roughness of 1.0 µm. Such type of superhydrophilic TiO2 – SiO2 coating may be used to protect architectural heritage and buildings.

Photoinduced Superhydrophilic TiO2–PHEA/PS Photonic Crystal Composites with Vivid Structural Color, Self‐Cleaning Ability, and Robust Structure

AbstractDue to its high refractive index, photocatalytic activity, and photoinduced superhydrophilicity, TiO2 has advantages in photonic crystals (PCs). However, the composite of TiO2 and PCs needs to be calcined at high temperatures, and the structural stability of the composites is poor. In this study, photoinduced superhydrophilic TiO2–poly(hydroxyethyl acrylate)/polystyrene (PHEA/PS) PC composites with strong structural colors and self‐cleaning are fabricated by coating triethanolamine‐modified anatase TiO2 nanoparticles‐hydroxyethyl acrylate on the surface of PS PCs. The ordered arrays can be retained after the superficial layers of PS PCs are filled with TiO2–PHEA, and vivid blue, green, and red composites can be obtained. The water contact angles of the composites can be reduced to 3° in 0.4 s, and superhydrophilicity can be maintained for 180 days in a laboratory environment. The declining superhydrophilicity can be restored under UV irradiation. The composites can degrade the adsorbed methylene blue under UV irradiation. Photocatalytic activity and superhydrophilicity impart self‐cleaning ability on the composites. The locking of PS arrays by TiO2–PHEA enhances the structural stability of the composites, making them resistant to water soaking and washing. Therefore, the composites show prospects for decoration, fabric coloring, and wearable electronic devices.

TiO2 Nanonetwork on Rough Ti Enhanced Osteogenesis In Vitro and In Vivo

The objective in this study was to enhance osteogenic responses (in vitro and in vivo) to roughened titanium (Ti) dental implants through the formation of superhydrophilic TiO2 nanonetwork surface structure. Sandblasting and acid etching (SLA) was used to roughen the Ti surface. An electrochemical anodization process was then used to form a superhydrophilic TiO2 nanonetwork on the SLA Ti surfaces. The pore size of the nanonetwork structure ranged from a few nanometers to more than 100 nm, which is on the same scale as many biological species. Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells were used as an in vitro test model. The TiO2 nanonetwork structure was shown to have a significantly positive effect on hydrophilicity, protein adsorption, cell adhesion, cell migration, cell mineralization, and the gene and protein expression of osteogenic markers. The osseointegration of an anodized SLA screw-type Ti dental implant was investigated in vivo via implantation in the femur of New Zealand white rabbits for durations of 4 or 12 wk. The presence of a superhydrophilic surface TiO2 nanonetwork was shown to significantly enhance the bone-to-implant contact of the roughened SLA screw-type Ti dental implants. Overall, the proposed superhydrophilic TiO2 nanonetwork structure on the roughened SLA Ti surface proved highly effective in enhancing osteogenic responses in vitro and in vivo.

Review on the Superhydrophilic coating of Electric insulator

In recent years, new preparation technologies of ultra-hydrophilic TiO2 films have emerged in an endless stream, such as spray pyrolysis, electrostatic spinning, spray printing, micro-arc oxidation, pulsed laser deposition, atomic force deposition, ion beam deposition, etc. These new preparation technologies are able to control the surface chemical composition and surface structure of the thin film more precisely and to prepare the ideal superhydrophilic TiO2 coating. Among them, the rf sputtering method has important research significance for the repair and maintenance of TiO2/SiO2 composite coating. Nano TiO2 has excellent photocatalytic activity and superhydrophilicity, making it an important material for the preparation of high self-cleaning superhydrophilic coatings. However, the application of TiO2 photocatalysis requires UV light, and there is less than 5% UV light in sunlight, so the application of TiO2 photocatalytic performance is greatly limited. In addition, the surface hydrophilicity of TiO2 under light also has great problems. Therefore, improving the surface hydrophilic durability of TiO2 has become a key research point.

Anti-reflection and self-cleaning meso-porous TiO2 coatings as solar systems protective layer: Investigation of effect of porosity and roughness

Anti-reflection and self-cleaning coatings on the glass substrate are used to improve the performance of solar systems. TiO2 are one of the most used semiconductors for this application. In this research meso-porous TiO2 coatings (that synthesized by the sol-gel process) with the various extent of porosity (using different concentrations of Pluronic F127, as pore-forming agent) have been investigated. The coating's thickness and porosity and anti-reflective properties were studied by FE-SEM and UV/VIS spectrometer (transmission spectra test), respectively. It was found that the use of F127 leads to the formation of pores smaller than 30 nm and increases the surface roughness from 1.5 (for F127 free coating) to 2.4 (for coating with 1.6 × 10−3 M of F127). and the transmittance of waves in the range of visible spectrum for TiO2 coated glass with 1.6 × 10−3 and 2 × 10−3 (M) was higher than the bare glass. The etching of TiO2 coating with HF (5%) is another beneficial way to improve the anti-reflective properties. Self-cleaning properties of super-hydrophilic TiO2 coating were investigated by contact angle and fatty acid decomposition tests. The contact angle of meso-porous TiO2 coating (4.2°) was less than dense coating (5.8°) and by increasing the coating surface roughness, the rate of fatty acid contaminations decomposition on the surface was increased.

Hybrid Membranes Dispersed with Superhydrophilic TiO2 Nanotubes Toward Ultra‐Stable and High‐Performance Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

AbstractThe vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is a large‐scale energy storage technique and has been regarded as a promising candidate to integrate intermittent renewable energy with the grid. Its long‐term stability has so far been limited by the core component, an ion exchange membrane with low ion selectivity. Here a hybrid membrane with superhydrophilic TiO2 nanotubes dispersed in a Nafion matrix is reported. The VRFB single cell with the hybrid membrane exhibits an impressive performance with high coulombic efficiency (CE, ≈98.3%) and outstanding energy efficiency (EE, ≈84.4%) at 120 mA cm−2, which is higher than that of the commercial Nafion 212 membrane (CE, ≈94.5%; EE, ≈79.2%). More importantly, the cell maintains a discharge capacity of ≈55.7% after 1400 cycles (over 518 h), in obvious contrast to that of ≈20% after only 410 cycles for the one using commercial Nafion 212. This is attributed to the high ion selectivity of the hybrid membrane, because of, 1) the blocked and elongated ion diffusion pathway induced by the dispersed nanotubes and 2) binding and alignment of the sulfonic acid groups on nanotube surface. The high‐performance membranes may also find important applications in other fields, such as fuel cells, dialytic batteries, and water treatment.

Immune response of macrophages on super-hydrophilic TiO2 nanotube arrays.

Macrophages are attracting increasing attention in promoting implant-mediated osteogenesis by modulating the microenvironment of the implant site. Biomaterial surface properties including topography and wettability regulate macrophage responses to influence tissue repair. The objective of our present study was to investigate the effects of hydrogenated titanium dioxide nanotube surfaces on the immune response of macrophages in vitro. Hydrogenated titanium dioxide nanotubes (TNTs) were synthesized on Ti surfaces by anodic oxidation and hydrogenation to form super-hydrophilic nanotubular surfaces. Macrophages were seeded directly onto three substrates (hydrogenated TNTs (H2-TNTs), air-annealed TNTs, and commercially pure Ti substrates) and grown under standard or lipopolysaccharide-stimulated culture conditions. Cell proliferation and viability were evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8 and live/dead staining at 24 and 48 h. Secretion and expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines were evaluated at 24 and 48 h to determine whether the surfaces elicited differential macrophage behaviors. Gene expression of the M1/M2 surface markers of macrophages was analyzed to assess the effect of the H2-TNT surface on macrophage polarization. The results showed that hydrogenation of the TNT surface resulted in a super-hydrophilic substrate, which exhibited markedly improved wettability attributable to the formation of oxygen vacancies in the nanotubes. The H2-TNT group induced a significantly lower macrophage proliferation rate and up-regulated anti-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-10, bone morphogenetic protein-2, and transforming growth factor-β1) irrespective of lipopolysaccharide stimulation, while alleviating the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, nitric oxide, and macrophage chemotactic protein-1) induced by lipopolysaccharide. Moreover, the H2-TNT surface elicited up-regulated gene expression of M2 surface markers and down-regulation of M1 surface markers. We concluded that the hydrogenated TNT surface modulated macrophage immune responses, which could be useful in accelerating inflammation resolution and facilitating tissue repair.