Superficial Temperatures Research Articles

Thermal and non-thermal effects off capacitive-resistive electric transfer application on the Achilles tendon and musculotendinous junction of the gastrocnemius muscle: a cadaveric study

BackgroundCalf muscle strain and Achilles tendon injuries are common in many sports. For the treatment of muscular and tendinous injuries, one of the newer approaches in sports medicine is capacitive-resistive electric transfer therapy. Our objective was to analyze this in vitro, using invasive temperature measurements in cadaveric specimens.MethodsA cross-sectional study designed with five fresh frozen cadavers (10 legs) were included in this study. Four interventions (capacitive and resistive modes; low- and high-power) was performed for 5 min each by a diathermy “T-Plus” device. Achilles tendon, musculotendinous junction and superficial temperatures were recorded at 1-min intervals and 5 min after treatment.ResultsWith the low-power capacitive protocol, at 5 min, there was a 25.21% increase in superficial temperature, a 17.50% increase in Achilles tendon temperature and an 11.27% increase in musculotendinous junction temperature, with a current flow of 0.039 A ± 0.02.With the low-power resistive protocol, there was a 1.14% increase in superficial temperature, a 28.13% increase in Achilles tendon temperature and an 11.67% increase in musculotendinous junction temperature at 5 min, with a current flow of 0.063 A ± 0.02. With the high-power capacitive protocol there was an 88.52% increase in superficial temperature, a 53.35% increase in Achilles tendon temperature and a 39.30% increase in musculotendinous junction temperature at 5 min, with a current flow of 0.095 A ± 0.03. With the high-power resistive protocol, there was a 21.34% increase in superficial temperature, a 109.70% increase in Achilles tendon temperature and an 81.49% increase in musculotendinous junction temperature at 5 min, with a current flow of 0.120 A ± 0.03.ConclusionThe low-power protocols resulted in only a very slight thermal effect at the Achilles tendon and musculotendinous junction, but current flow was observed. The high-power protocols resulted in a greater temperature increase at the Achilles tendon and musculotendinous junction and a greater current flow than the low-power protocols. The high-power resistive protocol gave the greatest increase in Achilles tendon and musculotendinous junction temperature. Capacitive treatments (low- and high-power) achieved a greater increase in superficial temperature.

The Pattern of Superficial Body Temperatures in Leisure Horses Lunged with Commonly Used Lunging Aids

Simple SummaryIn the training of horses, special lunging aids may be used to regulate head and neck position during exercise without the intervention of a rider. The rubber band and triangle side reins and the chambon have an impact on thoracolumbar kinematics and the motion of the fore- and hindlimbs. Lunging aids are assumed to modulate the work of horses’ muscles, which results in altering the superficial thermographic patterns. Thermography is a non-invasive, contactless imaging technique based on detecting emitted infrared radiation representing the temperature of the body surface, influenced by muscle metabolism and blood circulation. Training sessions for 16 horses performed in the study included exercises at walk, freely active trot, and canter. Surface temperatures of 11 regions of interest were evaluated on all images, corresponding to areas influenced by neck fixation and engaging hindquarters. In conclusion, thermography was shown as a useful tool in lunging aids’ usefulness evaluation. Different types of lunging aids influence the mobility of horse neck and back and its choice for leisure horses lunging should be made individually. Lunging aids change the surface temperature of different body parts during the leisure horse work on the lunge.Background: The natural head and neck position (HNP) of horses differs from the position in horse riding when bit is used. The special lunging aids (LAs) are applied in order to modify HNP. Different types of LAs have the potential to affect the work of horse muscles and the superficial thermographic patterns (STPs). The effects of thre LAs on STPs of neck, chest, back, and hindquarters were investigated. Methods: Sixteen leisure horses were lunged with freely moving head (FMH), rubber band (RB), chambon (CH), and triangle side reins (TRs). The thermographic images (n = 896) were analyzed before/after lunging for mean temperatures (Tmean) and minimum–maximum difference (Tdiff). Results: Superficial Tmean increased (p < 0.001) in cranial part of neck, back, thoracic area, and limbs after lunging regardless of LAs application or its type. In comparison to other LAs: With RB, Tmean was higher in regions of interest (ROIs) 2,7 and lower in ROIs 3–4 (p < 0.05); with CH, Tmean was higher in ROIs 2–4 and 7 (p < 0.01); and with TRs, Tmean was higher in ROIs 2–4,7,9–11 (p < 0.01). In ROIs 2–4 and 7, Tdiff was lower with LAs than with FMH (p < 0.01) and in ROIs 9–10 with TRs. Conclusions: The choice of LAs should be dictated by the expected effect; however, all LAs increase the quality of the leisure horse lunging. LA use is more desirable than lunging with FMH.

PSX-13 Correlation between superficial body temperatures measured with an infrared thermometer in alpacas

Abstract The temperature measurement is essential during the physical examination since it helps to detect abnormalities on animal health. In addition, it should be done in the shortest possible time to avoid stress. The objective of this research is to calculate the correlation between rectal temperature and the superficial body temperature by means of a digital infrared thermometer. Ten alpacas huacaya from the center of development Alpaquero (CEDAT-DESCOSUR), located in Arequipa region at 4,365 m.a.s.l, and eight alpacas huacaya of the zootechnical and technological unit (UZYT) of the Universidad Cientifica del Sur, located in Lima at 0 m.a.s.l., were used. Rectal temperature measurement (RECTAL) was done with a veterinary clinical thermometer for one minute. Superficial body temperature measurement was conducted with infrared thermometer model CENTER 350®, at a distance of between 20 to 25 cm. Six measuring points were established by infrared thermometer: the outer zone of the nose (ON), the inner zone of the nose (IN), the extreme zone of ear (EE), middle zone of ear (ME), lower zone of the ear (LE) and the belly of the animal (BE). Rectal temperatures were measured at the same time as superficial body temperatures. Pearson’s correlation coefficient and graphs were calculated using an R software package called “CORRGRAM.” The results are presented in Table 1. Mean and deviation standard for rectal temperature from CEDAT-DESCOSUR and UZYT were 38.03 ± 0.37 and 37.46 ± 0.35 ° C, respectively. The results showed that there is a major correlation between rectal temperature and the temperature of the middle of the ear and the outer zone of the nose. In conclusion, there is a highly significant correlation between rectal temperature and superficial body temperature in some areas of the body, being an alternative option for the prediction of temperature in alpacas.

BOVINE WELLFARE HANDLED IN ADAPTED CORRAL WITH UNCONVENTIONAL MATERIALS

ABSTRACT This study aimed at evaluating bovine behavioral parameters managed in crowding pens built with modular panel of reforestation wood and homogeneous particle sheets of sugarcane bagasse and in conventional wooden crowding pens. The animals treated had their body surface temperature measured by the infrared thermography method and the behavior evaluated through the flight time parameters and the behavior score in the crowding pens. The results indicated that the animals managed in these buildings showed no difference in the behavioral parameters, but the mean and maximum superficial body temperatures were lower in the animals managed in the crowding pens of modular panel.

Does organic selenium supplement affect the thermoregulatory responses of dairy goats?

ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the influence of dietary supplementation of organic selenium (Se) in non-lactating goats, as well as possible changes in the physiological responses of thermoregulation and in blood constituents under semiarid conditions. The study was undertaken for 42 consecutive days using 22 animals. Data were collected: (1) meteorological, (2) physiological and (3) haematological. The respiratory rate, rectal temperature, epidermis temperature and surface temperature of the pelt presented decreasing values from day zero to the 42nd day of evaluation, with the highest reduction in animals supplemented with Se. For haematological values, it was observed that the values of packet cell volume and mean corpuscular volume decreased significantly (p < 0.05) on the 42nd day of the experiment. For the animals that received dietary supplementation, it is possible to identify a greater association with factor 1, some haematological variables, and for factor 2, some physiological traits were also highlighted. The addition of Se in the diet reduced endogenous heat by reducing respiratory thermolysis and the superficial temperatures of the skin and epidermis, improving sensible and latent heat dissipation and keeping the rectal temperature within normal limits. Abbreviations: RR: respiratory rate; RT: rectal temperature; CT: coat surface temperature; ET: epidermis temperature; RH: relative humidity; AT: air temperature; RHL: radiant heat load; BGHI: black globe humidity index, PCV: packet cell volume; HC: haemoglobin concentration; MCV: mean cell volume; MCH: mean cell haemoglobin; MCHC: mean cell haemoglobin concentration; WBC: white blood cell count; RBC: red blood cell; PCA: principal component analysis.

Breast tumor localization using skin surface temperatures from a 2D anatomic model without knowledge of the thermophysical properties

Breast cancer is the second most common type of cancer among women after nonmelanoma skin cancer. Use of mammography, the main method to diagnose the disease, has several limitations in parts of the population. The primary goal of this work was to detect and localize the geometric centers of mammary tumors using only superficial temperatures of the breast skin. The 2D anatomic geometry of the breast was simulated using the commercial software COMSOL to obtain the distribution of skin temperature in the three main types of breast cancer. Random errors of ± 2% were added to the simulated temperatures. The temperature variation caused by each type of cancer on the healthy tissue was correlated with auxiliary temperature profiles. These auxiliary temperature profiles were obtained with no prior knowledge of the thermophysical properties of the tumor apart from the mean values for thermal conductivity and blood perfusion of the layers of healthy breast tissue. The results showed that the maximum error for geometric center estimation was 0.32 cm for invasive lobular carcinoma, with a diameter of 1 cm, positioned 5 cm from the skin surface. Thus, this work contributes to studies aiming to improve the use of infrared thermography for early breast cancer diagnosis, as the results showed that localization of tumors using only superficial temperature profiles does not require prior knowledge of the thermophysical properties of the tissues.

Infrared thermography as a non-invasive method for the evaluation of heat stress in pigs kept in pens free of cages in the maternity

Infrared thermography is a non-invasive method of body surface temperature analysis in pigs. This study aimed to evaluate the body surface temperature of sows and piglets kept in individual pens free of cages with or without cooling system with the use of infrared thermography. The study was conducted during the summer and autumn in Pirassununga, Brazil. Twenty-six sows during lactating phase and 281 piglets until 21 days-old were evaluated in two treatments: cooled pens with fans and water sprinklers on the roof and non-cooled pens. Both areas had ceramic roof tiles. Thermographic images were collected at intervals of seven days in the morning and afternoon in sows and randomly in five piglets per litter, and salivary cortisol were collected only on sows. The thermographic images were analyzed using the software IRSoft Version 3.6 Testo. Every three days respiratory rate and rectal temperatures were collected from sows and five piglets per litter. It was included fixed effect of treatment, period of the day, seasons and their interactions, besides the correlations of Pearson. In summer and autumn, the hottest surface area of sows was the mammary gland and the coldest the vaginal. For the piglets, the hottest area in the summer was the head and the coldest the snout. Summer presented the highest surface temperatures of the sugarcane bagasse bed, concrete floor and roof. No correlations were found between air temperature of and facilities. The respiratory rate presented moderate correlation with the back and with the snout of the sows. Rectal temperatures were higher in summer and in the afternoon, but it was similar between treatments. Although the cooling system had reduced the air temperature of the pens free of cage, it was not enough to reduce body superficial temperatures of the sows and piglets during lactating phase. Nevertheless, the use of infrared thermography allows to identify the hottest and coldest surface body areas of pigs and can be a tool to assess pig facilities and animal welfare.

Análise do desempenho térmico dos materiais superficiais do contexto urbano do SIA/ DF

Este trabalho investiga o desempenho térmico dos materiais superficiais que compõem o contexto urbano do Setor de Indústrias e Abastecimento – SIA em Brasília - DF, analisando a influência no ambiente. A escolha da área de estudo se deu pela diversificação de usos que a região apresenta, sua destinação inicial sofreu grandes modificações até o projeto urbano final executado na localidade. Neste sentido, o objetivo deste artigo é contribuir com estudos que auxiliam o desenho urbano sustentável, visto que, o acelerado processo de crescimento desordenado das cidades, provocam problemas urbanos de ordem ambiental. Diante disso, o método de trabalho é sustentado pela literatura especializada, na observação de temperaturas superficiais com a utilização de imagens orbitais do satélite Landsat 8, e por fim, na realização de simulações computacionais com o software ENVI-MET versão 4.3.2, utilizando o índice de conforto térmico urbano PMV - Voto Médio Predito de Fanger (1970), assumindo para este estudo o período quente-seco. Para isso, foram selecionados no SIA, pontos com diferentes relações W/H, segundo classificação de Romero (2011). Como resultado, destaca-se a evidência de microclimas distintos dependendo da conformação de uso e ocupação do solo na área de estudo, e assim foi possível concluir diante das análises comparativas dos recortes da área, que os materiais superficiais e a vegetação, contribuem de forma concreta para oferecer benefícios climáticos ao microclima local.

Acute heat stress induces changes in physiological and cellular responses in Saanen goats

The relationships between rectal temperatures and physiological and cellular responses to heat stress can improve the productivity of Saanen goats in tropical environments. In this context, this study evaluated the physiological responses and gene expression of heat shock proteins (HSP60, 70, and 90) and genes related to apoptosis (Bax, Bcl-2, and p53) of Saanen goats subjected to acute heat stress. Ten health Saanen goats were exposed to solar radiation during 3 consecutive days. The expression of HSP60, HSP70, HSP90, Bax, Bcl-2, and p53 genes in blood leukocytes, rectal and superficial temperatures, respiratory frequency, cortisol, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine was measured at 06:00, 13:00, and 18:00h. In vitro, blood leukocytes were subjected to 38°C and 40°C for 3h to measure the expression of the same target genes. The temperature humidity index, measured from 12:00 to 15:00, was greater than 80 and black globe temperatures were greater at 40°C, indicating the intensity of the solar radiation. Although the solar radiation caused acute heat stress, increased cortisol release, and the expression of HSP60 and 70 in dry Saanen goats, the increased respiratory frequency and decreased T4 and T3 restored the homeothermy of the experimental goats. In vitro, the 40°C increased the expression of p53 (pro-apoptotic protein), Bcl-2 (anti-apoptotic protein), HSP60, HSP70, and HSP90, suggesting that these genes have protective functions. However, further studies are necessary to understand the physiological and cellular responses to heat stress.

Importance of Sand Particle Size and Temperature for Nesting Success of Green Turtles in Penang Island, Malaysia

Abstract The microhabitats of green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nests were investigated to identify key factors influencing nesting success by monitoring both successful nests (n = 43) and aborted nests (n = 106) created by the same individuals (n = 9) from September 2013 to September 2014 on Penang Island, Malaysia. The effect of sand particle size on nesting success was significant, suggesting that green turtles tend to abort nesting at sites with sands of particle sizes < 1 mm. In addition, nests were successful at superficial sand temperatures less than 32.95°C.

CO2 Absorption from Biogas by Glycerol: Conducted in Semi-Batch Bubble Column

Biogas is a renewable energy source that has been developed recently. The main contents of Biogas itself are Methane and carbon dioxide (CO2) where Methane is the main component of biogas with CO2 as the highest impurities. The quality of biogas depends on the CO2 content, the lower CO2 levels, the higher biogas quality. Absorption is one of the methods to reduce CO2 level. The selections of absorbent and appropriate operating parameters are important factors in the CO2 absorption from biogas. This study aimed to find out the design parameters for CO2 absorption using glycerol that represented by the overall mass transfer coefficient (KLa) and Henry’s constant (H). This study was conducted in semi-batch bubble column. Mixed gas was contacted with glycerol in a bubble column. The concentration of CO2 in the feed gas inlet and outlet columns were analysed by Gas Chromatograph. The variables observed in this study were superficial gas velocity and temperatures. The results showed that higher superficial gas velocity and lower temperature increased the rate of absorption process and the amount of CO2 absorbed.

External Mass Transfer Model for Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition by Terminox Ultra Catalase in a Packed-Bed Reactor

Abstract It is known that external diffusional resistances are significant in immobilized enzyme packed-bed reactors, especially at large scales. Thus, the external mass transfer effects were analyzed for hydrogen peroxide decomposition by immobilized Terminox Ultra catalase in a packed-bed bioreactor. For this purpose the apparent reaction rate constants, kP, were determined by conducting experimental works at different superficial velocities, U, and temperatures. To develop an external mass transfer model the correlation between the Colburn factor, JD, and the Reynolds number, Re, of the type JD = K Re(n-1) was assessed and related to the mass transfer coefficient, kmL. The values of K and n were calculated from the dependence (am kp-1 - kR-1) vs. Re-1 making use of the intrinsic reaction rate constants, kR, determined before. Based on statistical analysis it was found that the mass transfer correlation JD = 0.972 Re-0.368 predicts experimental data accurately. The proposed model would be useful for the design and optimization of industrial-scale reactors.

Evaluación experimental y análisis de la mejora con aislamiento para el caso del puente térmico en el frente de forjado

El presente artículo plantea su problemática a partir de la necesidad del mejoramiento de la calidad térmica de la envolvente en el complejo de muros, específicamente en hormigón armado (material predominante para edificación en altura en Chile). Considerar la opción de aislación por la cara interior del muro produce, como consecuencia, la interrupción del material aislante en el encuentro del forjado y los muros perimetrales, generando el puente térmico conocido como frente de forjado. Ante esto se propone conocer el impacto de dicho puente, evaluando su comportamiento como singularidad mediante ensayos experimentales (cámara térmica). Posteriormente los resultados se integrarán a un caso de estudio que permita establecer la influencia del puente en el comportamiento energético global de una edificación a través de simulaciones térmicas con el software Tas. Finalmente se concluye una baja incidencia en las pérdidas de calor interior, tomando relevancia el comportamiento de las temperaturas superficiales.

Cold Water Mediates Greater Reductions in Limb Blood Flow than Whole Body Cryotherapy.

Cold-water immersion (CWI) and whole body cryotherapy (WBC) are widely used recovery methods in an attempt to limit exercise-induced muscle damage, soreness, and functional deficits after strenuous exercise. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of ecologically valid CWI and WBC protocols on postexercise lower limb thermoregulatory, femoral artery, and cutaneous blood flow responses. Ten males completed a continuous cycle exercise protocol at 70% maximal oxygen uptake until a rectal temperature of 38°C was attained. Participants were then exposed to lower-body CWI (8°C) for 10 min, or WBC (-110°C) for 2 min, in a randomized crossover design. Rectal and thigh skin, deep, and superficial muscle temperatures, thigh, and calf skin blood flow (laser Doppler flowmetry), superficial femoral artery blood flow (duplex ultrasound), and arterial blood pressure were measured before, and for 40 min post, cooling interventions. Greater reductions in thigh skin (CWI, -5.9°C ± 1.8°C; WBC, 0.2°C ± 0.5°C; P < 0.001) and superficial (CWI, -4.4°C ± 1.3°C; WBC, -1.8°C ± 1.1°C; P < 0.001) and deep (CWI, -2.9°C ± 0.8°C; WBC, -1.3°C ± 0.6°C; P < 0.001) muscle temperatures occurred immediately after CWI. Decreases in femoral artery conductance were greater after CWI (CWI, -84% ± 11%; WBC, -59% ± 21%, P < 0.02) and thigh (CWI, -80% ± 5%; WBC, -59% ± 14%, P < 0.001), and calf (CWI, -73% ± 13%; WBC, -45% ± 17%, P < 0.001) cutaneous vasoconstriction was greater after CWI. Reductions in rectal temperature were similar between conditions after cooling (CWI, -0.6°C ± 0.4°C; WBC, -0.6°C ± 0.3°C; P = 0.98). Greater reductions in blood flow and tissue temperature were observed after CWI in comparison with WBC. These novel findings have practical and clinical implications for the use of cooling in the recovery from exercise and injury.

Beneficial effects of retroreflective materials in urban canyons: results from seasonal monitoring campaign

Urban Heat Island (UHI) is a phenomenon that happens in urban areas consisting in higher temperatures than those in the surrounding rural areas. Cool materials and urban forestry have been identified as the mean countermeasures to this phenomenon. The specific research target was to investigate the benefit that can be obtained by the application of new retro-reflective (RR) cool materials on building envelopes in urban canyons. An ideal RR is a high reflective material that reflect incident radiation backward to the same direction of incidence. The test facility is made of two twin arrays resembling urban canyons with different aspect ratios. On the East array a cool, white, diffusive material is applied. On the West array a cool, white Retro-Reflective (RR) material is applied. The result of a seasonal (summer) monitoring campaign is discussed, with a particular focus on the temperature trends inside canyons with the same geometry but different envelope materials. While temperatures measured by the vertical sensors reveal a higher surface temperature of the RR, air temperatures and pavements’ superficial temperatures are lower when RR are applied. These results suggest that RR materials have a cooling potential as coatings in urban canyons, and can thus improve urban climate conditions during summer.

Linking patterns and processes through ecosystem engineering: effects of shrubs on microhabitat and water status of associated plants in the high tropical Andes

Studies on alpine and semi-arid environments indicate that plants that act as ecosystem engineers improve microhabitat conditions and modify local plant abundance and diversity. However, few studies have linked these patterns with the physiological responses of associated species. We analyze the role of a dominant shrub (Hypericum laricifolium) as an ecosystem engineer in paramo ecosystems at two altitudes (3,715 and 4,300 m) in the Venezuelan Andes. Superficial soil temperatures, soil water content, and organic matter were compared under the crown and outside. We selected the species with positive and negative spatial relations with the shrub and compared their midday leaf water potentials and turgor loss points in individuals growing under shrubs and outside. Results show that H. laricifolium dampened temperature oscillations and increased soil water and organic matter contents, the effect being more pronounced at the drier, lower elevation site. While positively associated forbs showed an improvement in their water status when growing under the crown, the species with the lowest water potentials and higher water-stress tolerance were grasses with a negative spatial relation with the shrub; this was consistent at both elevations. Moreover, the effect of the shrub on the water status and abundance of the exotic herb Rumex acetosella changed from positive in the drier site to negative in the more mesic site. Our results provide mechanistic evidence for interpreting spatial association patterns between nurse plants and other species in the alpine tropics. We propose that stress-resistance strategies (tolerance vs. avoidance) and origin (native vs. exotic) influence interactions with ecosystem engineers.

Thermal comfort index and infrared temperatures for lambs subjected to different environmental conditions

There is an abundance of thermal indices with different input parameters and applicabilities. Infrared thermography is a promising technique for evaluating the response of animals to the environment and differentiating between genetic groups. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate superficial body temperatures of lambs from three genetic groups under different environmental conditions, correlating these with thermal comfort indices. Forty lambs (18 males and 22 females) from three genetic groups (Santa Inês, Ile de France × Santa Inês and Dorper × Santa Inês) were exposed to three climatic conditions: open air, housed and artificial heating. Infrared thermal images were taken weekly at 6h, 12h and 21h at the neck, front flank, rear flank, rump, nose, skull, trunk and eye. Four thermal comfort indices were calculated using environmental measurements including black globe temperature, air humidity and wind speed. Artificial warming, provided by infrared lamps and wind protection, conserved and increased the superficial body temperature of the lambs, thus providing lower daily thermal ranges. Artificial warming did not influence daily weight gain or mortality. Skin temperatures increased along with increases in climatic indices. Again, infrared thermography is a promising technique for evaluating thermal stress conditions and differentiating environments. However, the use of thermal imaging for understanding animal responses to environmental conditions requires further study.

Potential application of thermography (IRT) in animal production and for animal welfare. A case report of working dogs.

The authors describe the thermography technique in animal production and in veterinary medicine applications. The thermographic technique lends itself to countless applications in biology, thanks to its characteristics of versatility, lack of invasiveness and high sensitivity. Probably the major limitation to most important aspects for its application in the animal lies in the ease of use and in its extreme sensitivity. This review provides an overview of the possible applications of the technique of thermo visual inspection, but it is clear that every phenomenon connected to temperature variations can be identified with this technique. Then the operator has to identify the best experimental context to obtain as much information as possible, concerning the physiopathological problems considered. Furthermore, we reported an experimental study about the thermography (IRT) as a noninvasive technique to assess the state of wellbeing in working dogs. The first results showed the relationship between superficial temperatures and scores obtained by the animal during the behavioral test. This result suggests an interesting application of infrared thermography (IRT) to measure the state of wellbeing of animals in a noninvasive way.

Extreme Rainfall Indices in the Hydrographic Basins of Brazil

The authors analyze climate extremes indices (CEI) of rainfall over the largest basins of the Brazilian territory: Amazon (AMA), S?o Francisco (SF), Tocantins (TO) and Parana (PAR) rivers. The CEI represent the frequency of heavy precipitation events (R30mm and R95p) and short duration extreme rainfall (RX5day and RX1day). Droughts (CDDd) are identified based on two indicators: The longest dry period (CDD) and the annual cycle. The results demonstrate that CDDd, RX1day and RX5day occurred with more frequency and intensity in SF basin during El Ni?o events. CDDd was of greater magnitude in the TO basin during La Ni?a events, while an increase of RX1day occurred in El Ni?o. The strong El Ni?o events (1983 and 1997) caused more intense and frequent RX1day and R30mm over the PAR basin. Amazon droughts occurred in two out of the six El Ni?o events. Moreover, the relationship between the positive (negative) sea superficial temperatures anomalies in North (South) Tropical Atlantic and drought in AMA basin was corroborated. A gradual warming of SST was observed at the start of 2003 until it achieved a maximum in 2005 associated with the southwestern Amazon drought. The second highest anomaly of SST was in 2010 linked with drought that was more spatially extensive than the 2005 drought. The spatial distribution of annual trends showed a significant increase of CDD in south-eastern AMA, Upper SF, northern PAR and throughout the TO basins. R20mm, RX1day and RX5day tend to increase significantly in southwestern (northeast) PAR (AMA) and northwestern TO basins. Comparisons between CEI derived from daily precipitation data from Climate Prediction Center (CPCp) and of the ETA_HadCM3 model showed that the model overestimated RX1day, RX5day and CDD, in the four basins. Future scenarios show that dry periods will occur with greatest magnitude in all the basins until 2071-2099 time slice, while RX1day will be more intense in the TO and SF basins.

Comparative Analysis of the Thermal Behavior between Cellular Concrete Blocks and Stabilized Earth Blocks as Wall Materials

In extreme climates like the desert climate of Northwest Mexico, indoor thermal conditions in buildings, and particularly in low-cost housing developments, are very uncomfortable. In buildings where the use of air conditioning devices can be afford, excessive energy is spent, leading to high acclimatization costs.In many cases, construction materials for low-cost houses are selected according to the lowest price, and not taking into account the best thermal behavior according to the local climate. Different types of blocks are widely used as a construction material for walls, such us earth blocks, adobe, concrete hollow blocks, cellular blocks, bricks, because of their low price and easy installation. Designstrategies must be very carefully selected according to the local climate, because they have a great impact on energy consumptions and in the quality of life of the occupants. The selection of the appropriate materials for the envelope is part of these design strategies, and is the main subject of this paper.In this work we analyze the thermal behavior of a wall compound of two different materials: cellular concrete blocks and stabilized earth blocks. The monitored wall is part of a low-cost house constructed for demonstrative and experimental purposes. External and internal superficial temperatures have been measured and infrared images of the same areas have been analyzed.Infrared thermography is particularly useful to evaluate non-homogeneous materials or non-traditional materials, from which not all thermal properties are known. The thermal behavior is analyzed, in relation to the expected characteristics according to the climate, such as adequate thermal insulation and thermal inertia of the envelope, which are different for air-conditioning and non air-conditioning situations.