Superficial Areas Research Articles

Fine-Needle Aspiration Cytological Diagnosis of Neck Masses

Background: Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is a simple, safe, inexpensive, and acceptable method for diagnosing masses, especially at superficial areas. Therefore, we decided to evaluate the accuracy of FNA cytological diagnosis in nonthyroidal, nonsalivary gland neck masses and compare the results with histopathological diagnosis. Materials and Methods: In this retrospective study, all cases with FNA cytological diagnosis of nonthyroidal, nonsalivary gland neck masses from April 2009 to July 2013 were retrieved. The procedure was done by pathologists, and all cytological and histopathological slides of the existing 46 cases were reviewed by 3 pathologists. The values of sensitivity (SN), specificity (SP), positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and diagnostic accuracy were calculated. Results: SN, SP, PPV, NPV, and accuracy in this study were 79, 100, 100, 73, and 86%, respectively. We had 6 false-negative and no false-positive cases. Conclusion: The FNA procedure is a reliable method as the first step for the diagnosis of nonthyroidal, nonsalivary gland neck masses. To increase the diagnostic value of cytology, careful examination of all cytological slides, repetition of the FNA procedure and good history taking are helpful.

Blue to Yellow Photoluminescence Emission and Photocatalytic Activity of Nitrogen Doping in TiO2Powders

The defects caused by doping are important for understanding the increased photocatalytic activities of TiO2:N in organic reactions and in the evaluation of OH radical production after doping. TiO2:N was therefore synthesized using a modified polymeric method and N doping was performed by calcination with urea. The resulting powders were characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy, and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy (PL). N doping did not alter the morphology of the nanoparticles, and the anatase phase predominated, with the retention of the rutile phase. The band gap values, superficial areas, and crystallite sizes of the powders decreased after doping. The PL results showed an additional energy level in the TiO2:N band gap structure as a result of TiO2lattice defects caused by doping. At low N contents, the powders showed continuous emissions from the blue region to the yellow region and a high N content shifted the PL emissions to the red region. These results suggest that the use of these powders could increase the efficiencies of solar cells and water-splitting processes. The photocatalytic activity of the powders under UVC illumination was confirmed for different organic dye molecules. The OH radical production did not change extensively after doping, as shown by experiments with terephthalic acid, and higher photocatalytic efficiencies in Rhodamine-B degradation under UVC illumination were achieved using the doped samples.

Development and initial porcine and cadaver experience with three-dimensional printing of endoscopic and laparoscopic equipment.

Recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing technology have made it possible to print surgical devices. We report our initial experience with the printing and deployment of endoscopic and laparoscopic equipment. We created computer-aided designs for ureteral stents and laparoscopic trocars using SolidWorks. We developed three generations of stents, which were printed with an Objet500 Connex printer, and a fourth generation was printed with an EOSINT P395 printer. The trocars were printed with an Objet30 Pro printer. We deployed the printed stents and trocars in a female cadaver and in vivo porcine model. We compared the printed trocars to two standard trocars for defect area and length using a digital caliper. Paired T-tests and ANOVA were used to test for statistical difference. The first two generations of stents (7F and 9F) were functional failures as their diminutive inner lumen failed to allow the passage of a 0.035 guidewire. The third generation 12F stent allowed passage of a 0.035 guidewire. The 12F diameter limited its deployment, but it was introduced in a cadaver through a ureteral access sheath. The fourth-generation 9F stents were printed and deployed in a porcine model using the standard Seldinger technique. The printed trocars were functional for the maintenance of the pneumoperitoneum and instrument passage. The printed trocars had larger superficial defect areas (p<0.001) and lengths (p=0.001) compared to Karl Storz and Ethicon trocars (29.41, 18.06, and 17.22 mm(2), respectively, and 14.29, 11.39, and 12.15 mm, respectively). In this pilot study, 3D printing of ureteral stents and trocars is feasible, and these devices can be deployed in the porcine and cadaver models. Three-dimensional printing is rapidly advancing and may be clinically viable in the future.

Expression of CHI3L1 and CHIT1 in osteoarthritic rat cartilage model. A morphological study.

Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease, which affects millions of people around the world. It occurs when the protective cartilage at the end of bones wears over time, leading to loss of flexibility of the joint, pain and stiffness. The cause of osteoarthritis is unknown, but its development is associated with different factors, such as metabolic, genetic, mechanical and inflammatory ones. In recent years the biological role of chitinases has been studied in relation to different inflammatory diseases and more in particular the elevated levels of human cartilage glycoprotein 39 (CHI3L1) and chitotriosidase (CHIT1) have been reported in a variety of diseases including chronic inflammation and degenerative disorders. The aim of this study was to investigate, by immunohistochemistry, the distribution of CHI3L1 and CHIT1 in osteoarthritic and normal rat articular cartilage, to discover their potential role in the development of this disease. The hypothesis was that the expression of chitinases could increase in OA disease. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that CHI3L1 and CHIT1 staining was very strong in osteoarthritic cartilage, especially in the superficial areas of the cartilage most exposed to mechanical load, while it was weak or absent in normal cartilage. These findings suggest that these two chitinases could be functionally associated with the development of osteoarthritis and could be used as markers, so in the future they could have a role in the daily clinical practice to stage the severity of the disease. However, the longer-term in vivoand in vitro studies are needed to understand the exact mechanism of these molecules, their receptors and activities on cartilage tissue.

Immunohistochemical study on cytokeratin expression on developing tongue in Korean native goats (Capra hircus)

Cytokeratin (CK) comprises the intermediate filament cytoskeleton of epithelial cells. Patterns of CK expression can be regarded as a specific marker for epithelial differentiation status. The aim of this study was to identify CK expression on tongues of Korean native goats ranging from 60-day-old fetuses to newborns during prenatal development using immunohistochemistry. The tongues of fetuses were removed from 2- to 4-year-old female Korean native goats by caesarean section performed under general anesthesia. Immunohistochemistry was performed to assess CK expression patterns on developing goat tongues using serial paraffin-embedded sections. Light zones signifying CK immunoreactivity in dorsal lingual epithelia were weakly positive in 60-day-old fetuses. In 90-day-old fetuses, deep areas in dorsal lingual epithelia were strongly positive for CK expression and superficial areas were moderately positive. In 120-day-old fetuses, light zones of lingual epithelia in the vallate papilla were strongly positive for CK expression, whereas ducts of von Ebner’s glands were moderately positive. In neonates, taste buds were positive for CK expression, whereas non-taste epithelial cells and von Ebner’s glands were negative. These findings indicate that goat tongues have different patterns of CK expression during development and provide a morphological basis for studies on the biological mechanism of epithelial differentiation.

Two distinct olfactory bulb sublaminar networks involved in gamma and beta oscillation generation: a CSD study in the anesthetized rat.

A prominent feature of olfactory bulb (OB) dynamics is the expression of characteristic local field potential (LFP) rhythms, including a slow respiration-related rhythm and two fast alternating oscillatory rhythms, beta (15–30 Hz) and gamma (40–90 Hz). All of these rhythms are implicated in olfactory coding. Fast oscillatory rhythms are known to involve the mitral-granule cell loop. Although the underlying mechanisms of gamma oscillation have been studied, the origin of beta oscillation remains poorly understood. Whether these two different rhythms share the same underlying mechanism is unknown. This study uses a quantitative and detailed current-source density (CSD) analysis combined with multi-unit activity (MUA) recordings to shed light on this question in freely breathing anesthetized rats. In particular, we show that gamma oscillation generation involves mainly the upper half of the external plexiform layer (EPL) and superficial areas of granule cell layer (GRL). In contrast, the generation of beta oscillation involves the lower part of the EPL and deep granule cells. This differential involvement of sublaminar networks is neither dependent on odor quality nor on the precise frequency of the fast oscillation under study. Overall, this study demonstrates a functional sublaminar organization of the rat OB, which is supported by previous anatomical findings.

Lesion locations influencing baseline severity and early recovery in ischaemic stroke.

Strokes caused by lesions to certain brain areas are associated with poor outcome, which is important both prognostically and to understand the neural basis for recovery. However, lesion anatomy associations with outcome may occur because of effects on baseline severity rather than because of effects on recovery per se. Here, all common stroke locations were surveyed to determine the strongest lesion anatomy associations separately for baseline functional severity and proportional recovery. Since most recovery occurs early, the focus here is on functional changes over the first week. Global functional scores (National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale) at baseline and proportional recovery over 1 week were derived from the records of 550 ischaemic stroke patients and related to magnetic resonance imaging lesion location using voxel-lesion mapping. The effects of lesions extending over more than one location were also considered. Cross-validation estimated the percentage of recovery rate variance (r(2) ) accountable by lesion location information. High baseline severity was associated with lesions to the left capsule, striatum and thalamocortical white matter, whereas high recovery rate was associated with lesions to more superficial left fronto-temporal areas. Low recovery rates were associated with lesions to bilateral parietal, right insula, medial frontal, capsule and brainstem. Inclusion of these regions into a multivariate model of proportional recovery rate increased r(2) from 8% to 45%. The strongest stroke lesion location associations with 1-week recovery were identified, and it was shown that anatomical information accounts for a sizeable proportion of early recovery variability.

Monitoring of TiO$_{\bf 2}$ and ZnO Nanoparticle Penetration Into Enamel and Dentine of Human Tooth IN VITRO and Assessment of Their Photocatalytic Ability

Penetration of nanoparticles into tooth enamel and dentine is of significant interest upon solving problems related to reduction of tooth sensitivity, enamel strengthening, disinfection, restoration as well as cosmetic bleaching. This paper aims at studying the process of nanoparticle penetration into tooth enamel and dentine samples using nonlinear optical microscopy and at investigating the influence of the same nanoparticles on the generation of free radicals using the electronic paramagnetic resonance technique. We presented in vitro measurements demonstrating that nonlinear optical microscopy, namely, two-photon-excited autofluorescence, second harmonic generation, and hyper-Rayleigh scattering-based microscopy can be used for monitoring and imaging TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticle penetration into tooth tissues. The results indicate that ZnO nanoparticles penetrated into the human tooth enamel and dentine up to a depth of 12 and 45 μm, respectively, and TiO2 nanoparticles penetrated into dentine to a depth of 5 μm. The penetration mainly occurs along either enamel rods or dentinal tubules. Permeability of the dentine was found to be higher than that of enamel (for ZnO particles) by one order of magnitude and the diffusion rate was affected by the particle size being higher for smaller, submicron particles (ZnO) than for micron-sized aggregates (TiO2). Nitrogen-doped TiO2 nanoparticles generate more radicals in the UV-VIS spectral range in comparison to pristine TiO2 (anatase) and ZnO nanoparticles, therefore, they can potentially be used for disinfection purposes of superficial tooth areas (up to 5-μm deep).

Functional Outcomes of Patients with Severe MCA Infarction after Decompressive Craniectomy

Objective: To compare the functional outcomes between surgical treatment and conservative medical treatment for severe middle cerebral artery (MCA) infarction. Method: This is comparative analysis of prospectively documented data with 25 patients have malignant MCA infarction. Ten patients in Group A (male 7, female 3) received surgical treatment such as decompressive craniectomy, and fifteen patients in Group B (male 10, female 5) received conservative medical treatment. We defined MCA infarction as “severe” when it concerned both the deep and superficial areas of the MCA or when the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) was lower to 75 on admission to our department. Functional status was measured using modified Rankin Scale (mRS), FIM, Motricity Index (MI) and Trunk Control Test (TCT). All evaluations were measured at baseline and 90 days after stroke. Results: Mean age were 55.0 ± 8.6 and 58.7 ± 12.3 in Group A and B. Rt. MCA infarction were 4 in Group A and 5 in Group B. Lt. MCA infarction were 5 in Group A and 10 in Group B. Baseline functional status between two groups was not significantly different. Each group showed functional improvement according to the time. When compared changes between two groups, arm Motricity Index, K-MMSE, mRS and FIM were no significant difference between two groups. Leg segments of MI and TCT was significantly improved in Group A more than B at 90 days after baseline evaluation (p<0.05). Conclusion: Decompressive craniectomy improved motor function of affected leg and trunk in patients with severe MCA infarction more than conservative medical treatment alone. (Brain & NeuroRehabilitation 2014; 7: 48-53)

Coil design considerations for deep transcranial magnetic stimulation

ObjectivesTo explore the field characteristics and design tradeoffs of coils for deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS). MethodsWe simulated parametrically two dTMS coil designs on a spherical head model using the finite element method, and compare them with five commercial TMS coils, including two that are FDA approved for the treatment of depression (ferromagnetic-core figure-8 and H1 coil). ResultsSmaller coils have a focality advantage over larger coils; however, this advantage diminishes with increasing target depth. Smaller coils have the disadvantage of producing stronger field in the superficial cortex and requiring more energy. When the coil dimensions are large relative to the head size, the electric field decay in depth becomes linear, indicating that, at best, the electric field attenuation is directly proportional to the depth of the target. Ferromagnetic cores improve electrical efficiency for targeting superficial brain areas; however magnetic saturation reduces the effectiveness of the core for deeper targets, especially for highly focal coils. Distancing winding segments from the head, as in the H1 coil, increases the required stimulation energy. ConclusionsAmong standard commercial coils, the double cone coil offers high energy efficiency and balance between stimulated volume and superficial field strength. Direct TMS of targets at depths of ∼4cm or more results in superficial stimulation strength that exceeds the upper limit in current rTMS safety guidelines. Approaching depths of ∼6cm is almost certainly unsafe considering the excessive superficial stimulation strength and activated brain volume. SignificanceCoil design limitations and tradeoffs are important for rational and safe exploration of dTMS.

Methylation levels of LINE-1 in primary lesion and matched metastatic lesions of colorectal cancer

Background:LINE-1 methylation level is a surrogate marker of global DNA methylation. LINE-1 methylation in primary colorectal cancers (CRCs) is highly variable and strongly associated with a poor prognosis. However, no study has examined LINE-1 methylation levels of metastatic CRCs in relation to prognosis or assessed the heterogeneity of LINE-1 methylation level within the primary CRCs.Methods:Pyrosequencing was used to quantify LINE-1 methylation level in 42 liver metastases, 26 matched primary tumours, and 6 matched lymph node (LN) metastases. KRAS, BRAF, and PIK3CA mutation status and microsatellite instability (MSI) status were also examined.Results:The distribution of LINE-1 methylation level in liver metastases was as follows: mean, 67.3; range, 37.1–90.1. Primary tumours showed LINE-1 methylation levels similar to those of matched liver and LN metastases. The difference in LINE-1 methylation level between superficial areas and invasive front areas was within 7.0 in all six cases evaluated. Prognostic impact of LINE-1 hypomethylation in liver metastases on overall survival was not observed. The concordance rate was 94% for KRAS, 100% for BRAF, 88% for PIK3CA, and 97% for MSI.Conclusion:Alteration of LINE-1 methylation level may occur in early CRC tumorigenesis, and the LINE-1 methylation level is relatively stable during CRC progression.

Chromosomal imbalances exclusively detected in invasive front area are associated with poor outcome in laryngeal carcinomas from different anatomical sites

Laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) is a malignant neoplasm exhibiting aggressive phenotype, high recurrence rate, and risk of developing second primary tumors. Current evidence suggests that cells in the invasive front of carcinomas have different molecular profiles compared to those in superficial areas. This study aimed to identify candidate genes in the invasive front and superficial cells from laryngeal carcinomas that would be useful as molecular markers. Invasive front and tumor surface cells of 32 LSCC were evaluated by high-resolution comparative genomic hybridization. Both CCND1 copy number gains and cyclin D1 protein expression were evaluated to confirm gains of 11q13.3. Losses of 3q26.2-q29 and 18q23 were confirmed by loss of heterozygosity analysis. The most frequent chromosomal alterations observed only in invasive front cells involved gains of 1p, 4q, and 9p and losses of 3p, 11p, 12p, 13q, 17q, 18p, 19q, 20q, 21q, and Xp. Gains of 11q13 were detected in both components from glottis and supraglottis but only in invasive front cells from transglottic tumors. Fluorescence in situ hybridization confirmed gains of CCND1/CPE11 in a subset of cases. In supraglottic tumors, cyclin D1 positivity was associated with distant metastasis (P = 0.0018) and with decreased disease-free survival (P = 0.042). Loss of heterozygosity at 3q26.2 and 18q23 were associated with lymph node involvement (P = 0.055) and worsened prognosis, respectively. In conclusion, this study revealed regions that could be targeted in the search for molecular markers in LSCC. Cyclin D1 may be useful as a prognostic marker in supraglottic tumors.

FRI0040 Transitional zones displacement of the subchondral bone layers in a model of osteoporosis and osteoarthritis in rabbits

BackgroundSubchondral bone (SB) plays a crucial role in osteoarthritis (OA) pathogenesis. Nevertheless, there is little information available about the microarchitectural characteristics of the different layers and transitional zones (TZ) comprising...

Electrospinning of Ibuprofen-Loaded Composite Nanofibers for Improving the Performances of Transdermal Patches

The main aim of the present study was to electrospin ibuprofen (IBU)-loaded composite nanofibers to improve the performances of transdermal patches. Cellulose acetate/poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (CA/PVP) blends were used to fabricate uniform nanofibers. Investigations on the physicochemical properties of CA/PVP solutions indicated that the addition of appropriate PVP improved the electrospinnability of original CA solutions. Detections on the physical states of IBU in medicated CA/PVP nanofibers suggested that IBU was uniformly distributed in nanofibers in an amorphous state. Comparing to IBU-loaded casting membrane, the medicated CA/PVP nanofibers provided a faster IBU diffusion manner and a better ex vitro skin permeation profile due to their high superficial areas and the amorphous IBU. Furthermore, CA/PVP nanofibers exhibited a high water vapor permeability, which could render an improved breathability to transdermal patches. In sum, the electrospun drug-loaded CA/PVP nanofibers exhibited great potentials to improve the thermodynamic stability and breathability of transdermal patches, which could be used to develop new types of transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS).

An assessment of mast cells and myofibroblasts in denture‐induced fibrous hyperplasia

The pathogenesis of denture-induced fibrous hyperplasias has not been examined in detail to explain how tissue injury results in fibrous hyperplasia of the oral mucosa. We examined the presence of mast cells and myofibroblasts in 33 denture-induced fibrous hyperplasias (DIFH) compared with 10 healthy gingival tissues. The parameters examined included mast cell numbers, tissue distribution, degranulation, and cell subtypes using immunohistochemistry. The presence of myofibroblasts and their likely origin was also examined by double immunofluorescense staining. Furthermore, we investigated the synthesis of osteopontin and TGF-β, considered to be involved in the transformation of a fibroblast to a myofibroblast. The results demonstrated that the mast cell numbers are significantly increased in the DIFH compared with non-disease controls. The mast cell localization in lesions was higher in the superficial areas with inflammatory cell infiltration compared with the deep fibrotic area (P < 0.01). The number of tryptase-positive mast cells was significantly higher compared with chymase-positive ones. The TGF-β- or osteopontin-positive cell infiltration into the lesion was found in high numbers. The presence of myofibroblasts was identified in 14 of 33 cases (42%), and some of these cells showed apoptosis when assessed by the TUNEL assay. On the survey of the origin of myofibroblasts, results showed αSMA and vimentin positivity indicating these transformed from fibroblasts. These results are the first to show that mast cells and myofibroblasts can be detected in DIFH, indicating important roles of these cells in the pathogenesis of this lesion.

Lymphoedema: causes, prevention and management in older people

SummaryThe lymphatic system must have variation in tissue pressure to load it and to help flow. Being a low pressure system, external pressure must not be constantly high on any segment and there must be a pressure gradient along it. When the flow rate of lymph fails there can be compromised immunity, a tendency to deposit fat, fibrotic induration, and a vicious cycle of worsening of cellular and organ health often associated with recurrent infection.As we age we become less active, lose muscle tone, and increase our weight, develop a higher percentage of body fat, and may have poor skin care and be prescribed medications which impact on lymphatic load. Combined with this, the tendency to immobility, limb dependency and periods of time when high external pressures exist in small superficial areas increase the risk of or contribute to lymphoedema through reducing lymphatic flow. Older people are more likely to have had more radical surgery and radiotherapy for cancer with more significant damage to their lymphatic systems, again adding to lymphoedema risk. Immobility, hypertension, venous disease, kidney and liver failure can lead to oedema, while thyroid dysfunction can cause myxedema, and genetic or metabolic issues can cause lipoedema, compounding the clinical problems.A key point in good management is early identification and accurate diagnosis. Ideally, other issues that especially impact on lymphatic load should be managed prior to targeted and sequenced treatment for the swelling, with the aim being to improve patient comfort. Management can involve the patient, partner, family or carer as well as a range of health professionals to help reduce or maintain limb size, appearance and function as well as reduce symptoms of heaviness, tension and discomfort and a range of other issues that impact on quality of life and activities of living.

Human Articular Chondrocytes Express Multiple Gap Junction Proteins: Differential Expression of Connexins in Normal and Osteoarthritic Cartilage

Human Articular Chondrocytes Express Multiple Gap Junction Proteins: Differential Expression of Connexins in Normal and Osteoarthritic Cartilage

Value of the Ultrasound Attenuation Index for Noninvasive Quantitative Estimation of Hepatic Steatosis

To assess the value of the ultrasound (US) attenuation index for noninvasive estimation of hepatic steatosis and determine its optimal cutoff value for severe steatosis in potential living liver donors. Two hundred forty potential donors underwent US-guided biopsy. The target site was scanned at 4 and 8 MHz. On the sonogram, the observer drew 3 × 3-mm square regions of interest in superficial (3-cm) and deep (5-cm) areas. The attenuation index was defined as the difference between superficial and deep echogenicity/superficial echogenicity × 100. On biopsy specimens, replacement of hepatic parenchyma was evaluated on a percentage scale. Severe steatosis was defined as macrovesicular fatty change of 30% or greater. Spearman rank correlation (ρ) was used to determine correlation coefficients between the attenuation index and steatosis degree; receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to determine the optimal attenuation index cutoff value for severe steatosis. The median steatosis degree was 3% (interquartile range [IQR], 0%-10%). Severe steatosis was found in 10 donors. The attenuation index ranged from -27.4 to 36.6 (median, 4.0; IQR, -1.6-10.4) at 4 MHz and -18.0 to 78.1 (median, 14.5; IQR, 7.2-21.9) at 8 MHz. There was a minimal positive correlation between steatosis and the attenuation index at 4 MHz (total steatosis: ρ = 0.339; P < .001; macrovesicular steatosis: ρ = 0.360; P < .001). However, there was a significant moderate correlation between steatosis and the attenuation index at 8 MHz (total steatosis: ρ = 0.669; P < .001; macrovesicular steatosis: ρ = 0.645; P < .001). The optimal attenuation index cutoff value for severe steatosis at 8 MHz was 31.0. The US attenuation index at 8 MHz is a useful indicator for noninvasive quantitative estimation of hepatic steatosis and diagnosis of severe steatosis in potential living liver donors.

Comparison of Three Hypothermic Target Temperatures for the Treatment of Hypoxic Ischemia: mRNA Level Responses of Eight Genes in the Piglet Brain

Hypothermia can reduce neurodevelopmental disabilities in asphyxiated newborn infants. However, the optimal cooling temperature for neuroprotection is not well defined. We studied the effects of transient piglet brain hypoxic ischemia (HI) on transcriptional activity of eight genes and if mRNA level alterations could be counteracted by whole body cooling to 35, 33.5 or 30°C. BDNF mRNA was globally upregulated by the insult, and none of the cooling temperatures counteracted this change. In contrast, MANF mRNA was downregulated, and these changes were modestly counteracted in different brain regions by hypothermic treatment at 33.5°C, while 30°C aggravated the MANF mRNA loss. MAP2 mRNA was markedly downregulated in all brain regions except striatum, and cooling to 33.5°C modestly counteract this downregulation in the cortex cerebri. There was a tendency for GFAP mRNA levels in core, but not mantle regions to be downregulated and for these changes to be modestly counteracted by cooling to 33.5 or 35°C. Cooling to 30°C caused global GFAP mRNA decrease. HSP70 mRNA tended to become upregulated by HI and to be more pronounced in cortex and CA1 of hippocampus during cooling to 33.5°C. We conclude that HI causes alterations of mRNA levels of many genes in superficial and deep piglet brain areas. Some of these changes may be beneficial, others detrimental, and lowering body temperature partly counteracts some, but not all changes. There may be general differences between core and mantle regions, as well as between the different cooling temperatures for protection. Comparing the three studied temperatures, cooling to 33.5°C, appears to provide the best cooling temperature compromise.

In Vivo Optical Microendoscopy for Imaging Cells Lying Deep within Live Tissue

Although in vivo microscopy has been pivotal in enabling studies of neuronal structure and function in the intact mammalian brain, conventional intravital microscopy has generally been limited to superficial brain areas such as the olfactory bulb, the neocortex, or the cerebellar cortex. For imaging cells in deeper areas, this article discusses in vivo optical microendoscopy using gradient refractive index (GRIN) microlenses that can be inserted into tissue. Our general methodology is broadly applicable to many deep brain regions and areas of the body. Microendoscopes are available in a wide variety of optical designs, allowing imaging across a range of spatial scales and with spatial resolution that can now closely approach that offered by standard water-immersion microscope objectives. The incorporation of microendoscope probes into portable miniaturized microscopes allows imaging in freely behaving animals. When combined with the broad sets of available fluorescent markers, animal preparations, and genetically modified mice, microendoscopic methods enable sophisticated experimental designs for probing how cellular characteristics may underlie or reflect animal behavior and life experience, in healthy animals and animal models of disease.