Superconducting Cavity Research Articles

Adaptive numerical algorithms to simulate the dynamical Casimir effect in a closed cavity with different boundary conditions.

We present an alternative numerical approach to compute the number of particles created inside a cavity due to time-dependent boundary conditions. The physical model consists of a rectangular cavity, where a wall always remains still while the other wall of the cavity presents a smooth movement in one direction. The method relies on the setting of the boundary conditions (Dirichlet and Neumann) and the following resolution of the corresponding equations of modes. By a further comparison between the ground state before and after the movement of the cavity wall, we finally compute the number of particles created. To demonstrate the method, we investigate the creation of particle production in vibrating cavities, confirming previously known results in the appropriate limits. Within this approach, the dynamical Casimir effect can be investigated, making it possible to study a variety of scenarios where no analytical results are known. Of special interest is, of course, the realistic case of the electromagnetic field in a three-dimensional cavity, with transverse electric (TE)-mode and transverse magnetic (TM)-mode photon production. Furthermore, with our approach we are able to calculate numerically the particle creation in a tuneable resonant superconducting cavity by the use of the generalized Robin boundary condition. We compare the numerical results with analytical predictions as well as a different numerical approach. Its extension to three dimensions is also straightforward.

The RF distribution system for the ESS

The RF distribution system for the super-conducting cavities of the European Spallation Source will be one of the largest systems ever built. It will distribute the power from 146 power sources to the two types of ESS cavity at two different frequencies and will use one line per cavity for resilience. It will consist of a total of around 3.5 km of waveguide and coaxial line and over 1500 hundred bends. It is designed to transport this RF power over a distance of up to 40m per line, while minimising losses, avoiding reflections and allowing the monitoring of performance.

The issues in the development of a [formula omitted] MHz, [formula omitted] superconducting half-wave resonator for the Rare Isotope Science Project (RISP)

A f=162.5 MHz superconducting half-wave resonator (HWR) with β=0.12 is one of the four superconducting cavities being developed for the heavy ion linac of the Rare Isotope Science Project (RISP). The linac will accelerate various ions ranging from proton to uranium with beam power of about 400 kW. In particular, the HWR’s will accelerate the ion beam in low–medium energy range, i.e., from 1.6 to 18 MeV for the case of uranium. In this paper, we describe design, fabrication, surface treatment, and vertical test of the 1st prototype of the cavity in detail. We also discuss some issues on the performance enhancement of the cavity. The Q0 values at 2 K surpassed the target performance, Q0=1.1×109 at Eacc=6.3MV∕m.

High efficiency RF amplifier development over wide dynamic range for accelerator application

Superconducting (SC) cavities in an accelerating section are designed to have the same geometrical velocity factor (βg). For these cavities, Radio Frequency (RF) power needed to accelerate charged particles varies with the particle velocity factor (β). RF power requirement from one cavity to other can vary by 2–5 dB within the accelerating section depending on the energy gain in the cavity and beam current. In this paper, we have presented an idea to improve operating efficiency of the SC RF accelerators using envelope tracking technique. A study on envelope tracking technique without feedback is carried out on a 1 kW, 325 MHz, class B (conduction angle of 180 degrees) tuned load power amplifier (PA). We have derived expressions for the efficiency and power output for tuned load amplifier operating on the envelope tracking technique. From the derived expressions, it is observed that under constant load resistance to the device (MOSFET), optimum amplifier efficiency is invariant whereas output power varies with the square of drain bias voltage. Experimental results on 1 kW PA module show that its optimum efficiency is always greater than 62% with variation less than 5% from mean value over 7 dB dynamic range. Low power amplifier modules are the basic building block for the high power amplifiers. Therefore, results for 1 kW PA modules remain valid for the high power solid state amplifiers built using these PA modules. The SC RF accelerators using these constant efficiency power amplifiers can improve overall accelerator efficiency.

Off-resonance coupling between a cavity mode and an ensemble of driven spins

We study the interaction between a superconducting cavity and a spin ensemble. The response of a cavity mode is monitored while simultaneously the spins are driven at a frequency close to their Larmor frequency, which is tuned to a value much higher than the cavity resonance. We experimentally find that the effective damping rate of the cavity mode is shifted by the driven spins. The measured shift in the damping rate is attributed to the retarded response of the cavity mode to the driven spins. The experimental results are compared with theoretical predictions and fair agreement is found.

MTCA.4-based LLRF control system for the C-ADS proton Linac injector I

The Chinese ADS proton Linac injector I composed of an electron cyclotron resonance ion source, a low-energy beam transport line, a radio frequency quadrupole (RFQ) accelerator, a medium-energy beam transport (MEBT) line, a superconducting section and beam dump with design goal to achieve CW proton beam with beam current 10 mA and energy gain around 10 MeV. In order to maintain the stability of the RF system, to compensate for the beam load effect and to provide the GUI required for the operation of the RF power system, we have established a LLRF control system. This LLRF system for ADS proton Linac injector I in IHEP consists of RF reference system and LLRF controllers for one RFQ cavity, two MEBT bunching cavities and 14 superconductive spoke cavities. We have adopted a new development mTCA.4-based hardware platform, and it has some characteristics such as faster bandwidth, standardized design, easy operation and maintenance and good expansibility. The LLRF system has been improved and optimized and has now been put into operation. It takes into account the pulse and CW beam flow mode, feedforward and feedback control functions. With the help of this system, we achieved stable operation with narrow pulses, long pulses, and CW modes under different beam loads. This article describes the implementation of this system and presents some initial the CW beam acceleration results with the help of this system at the end of 2016.

Pulse Reverse Voltage Electropolishing of Superconducting Radio Frequency Niobium Cavities in Aqueous, Low Concentration Sulfuric Acid Electrolytes without Hydrofluoric Acid

Niobium superconducting radio frequency cavities (SRF) are required for the International Linear Collider as well as other high energy physics projects. In order for these cavities to achieve the required particle acceleration gradients, electropolishing is conducted as a final surface finishing operation. Conventional electropolishing of SRF cavities is based on the well-established viscous salt film paradigm [[1]] and utilizes a viscous electrolyte consisting of a mixture of sulfuric acid (95-98%) and hydrofluoric acid (49%) in a 9:1 volume ratio [[2]]. The concentrated is included to establish a thick, viscous boundary layer to result in surface brightening or smoothing [[3]]. The hydrofluoric acid is included to remove the niobium oxide film formed during electropolishing [[4]]. Previously we described efforts directed towards demonstrating an innovative electropolishing process for niobium coupons in low concentration (5%) aqueous sulfuric acid without hydrofluoric acid enabled by pulse reverse voltage waveforms electrolyte [[5],[6]]. The advantages of pulse reverse voltage electropolishing are summarized in in Figure 1. Specifically, the forward (anodic) pulse on-time and peak voltage are tuned to eliminate the need for concentrated sulfuric acid; the off-time is adjusted to dissipate heat, and the reverse (cathodic) pulse on-time and peak voltage are tuned to eliminate the need for hydrofluoric acid. In this contribution, we review and describe continuing efforts leading to the scale-up of the electropolishing process to single-cell and three-cell niobium SRF cavities [[7],[8]]. Finally, we present a first order economic comparison of the pulse reverse voltage low concentration aqueous sulfuric acid process compared to baseline concentrated sulfuric acid-hydrofluoric acid process [[9]]. Acknowledgements: The financial support of Faraday corporate, DOE P.O. No. 594128 and DOE Contract No. DE-SC0004588 is acknowledged. [1] Jacquet, P.A. (1936) On the Anodic Behavior of Copper in Aqueous Solutions of Orthophosphoric Acid. Trans. Electrochem. Soc. 69(1) 629-655. [2] Tian, H., Corcoran, S., Reece, C. and Kelly, M. (2008) The Mechanism of Electropolishing of Niobium in Hydrofluoric-Sulfuric Acid Electrolyte. J. Electrochem. Soc., 155, D563-568. [3] D. Landolt,(1987) “Fundamental Aspects of Electropolishing” Electrochimica Acta 32(1) 1-11 (1987). [4] MacDougall, B. (1995) “The Importance of Surface Oxide Films in Corrosion, Semiconductor and Environmental Research” Proceedings of the Symposium on High Rate Metal Dissolution Processes, Vol. 95-19, (Eds. M. Datta, B. MacDougall and J. Fenton) The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, pp 16-31. [5] M. Inman, E.J. Taylor, T.D. Hall “Electropolishing of Passive Materials in HF-Free Low Viscosity Aqueous Electrolytes” J. Electrochem. Soc., 160(9) E94-E98 (2013). [6] E.J. Taylor, M.E. Inman, T.D. Hall (2015) “Electrochemical system and method for electropolishing superconductive radio frequency cavities” U.S. Patent No. 9,006,147 issued April 14, 2015. [7] E.J. Taylor, T.D. Hall, M. Inman, S. Snyder (2013) “Electropolishing of Niobium SRF Cavities in Low Viscosity Aqueous Electrolytes without Hydroflouric Acid” Paper No. TUP054, Presented SRF2013, Paris, FRANCE. [8] A.M. Rowe, A. Grassellino, T.D. Hall, M.E. Inman, S.T. Snyder, E.J. Taylor (2013) “Bipolar EP: Electropolishing without Flourine in a Water Based Electrolyte” Paper No. TUIOC02, Presented SRF2013, Paris, FRANCE. [9] E.J. Taylor, M. Inman, T. Hall, S. Snyder, A. Rowe, D. Holmes (2015) “Economics of Electropolishing Niobium SRF Cavities in Eco-Friendly Aqueous Electrolytes without Hydrofluoric Acid” Paper No. MOPB092, Presented SRF2015, Whistler, CANADA. Figure 1

Superconducting Cavity Control and Model Identification Based on Active Disturbance Rejection Control

Superconducting cavities are widely used in linear accelerator facilities all over the world. It is challenging for the low level RF (LLRF) system to stabilize the RF field inside the cavities working in pulsed mode with heavy beam loading and strong Lorenz force detuning. Feedback loops are implemented in LLRF system which should have fast responses to the disturbances on cavities. To enhance the feedback performance, active compensation of Lorenz force detuning with Piezo tuners and the compensation of beam loading with feed forward control are strongly needed. They all require the knowledge of cavity parameters, such as the quality factor, time varying detuning and the amplitude and phase of the beam. A disturbance observer based on the active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) was designed for superconducting cavities counting the Lorenz force detuning and beam loading as disturbances to the cavities. The ADRC disturbance observer can be integrated into LLRF feedback loops to speed up the responses to disturbances and the outputs of the observer are interpreted furtherly to identify the cavity parameters. This paper presents the algorithm and architecture of the ADRC disturbance observer, the simulation of the LLRF feedback loop with disturbance rejection and the cavity parameter identification applied on the archived data of superconducting cavities in operation.

Reduction of RF accelerating voltage of Pohang Light Source-II superconducting RF cavity for stable top-up mode operation

The Pohang Light Source-II (PLS-II) is currently providing a top-up mode user-service operation with maximum available beam current of 400 mA and a beam emittance of below 10 nm-rad. The dimension of the beam bunch shortened to accomplish a low beam emittance of below 10 nm-rad from a high beam current of 400 mA increases the bunch charge density. As a result, the electron beam lifetime is significantly degraded and a high gradient of power is lost in the vacuum components of the storage ring. A study on how to reduce the bunch charge density without degrading beam emittance found that reducing the RF accelerating voltage (Vacc) can lower the bunch charge density by lengthening the bunch in the longitudinal direction. In addition, the Vacc required for stable operation with beam current of 400 mA can be reduced by lowering the external cavity quality factors (Qext values) of the superconducting cavities (SCs). To control the Qext values of SCs gradually without accessing the accelerator tunnel, a remote control motorized three-probe-tuner was installed in the transmission line of each SC. The optimum installation position of the three-probe-tuner was determined by using a finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulation and by experimenting on various installation positions of the three-probe-tuner. The Qext values of all the SCs were lowered to 1.40 × 105, and then, the Vacc required to store the beam current of 400 mA was decreased from 4.8 MV to 4.2 MV, which corresponds to 10% lengthening of the beam bunches. The stable operation with the reduced Vacc was confirmed during a 400 mA ten-day top-up mode user-service. Currently, the RF system of the PLS-II storage ring delivers the user-service operation with lowered Qext values to reduce the power loss at the vacuum components as well as the cryogenic heat load of SCs, and no significant problems have been found. This method of reducing the Vacc may also be applied in other synchrotron facilities.

Commissioning results of CERN HIE-ISOLDE and INFN ALPI cryogenic control systems

The cryogenic systems of both accelerators, namely HIE ISOLDE (High Intensity and Energy Isotope Separator On Line DEvice) at CERN and ALPI (Acceleratore Lineare Per Ioni) at LNL, have been refurbished. HIE ISOLDE is a major upgrade of the existing ISOLDE facilities, which required the construction of a superconducting linear accelerator consisting of six cryomodules, each containing five superconductive RF cavities and superconducting solenoids. The ALPI linear accelerator, similar to HIE ISOLDE, is located at Legnaro National Laboratories (LNL) and became operational in the early 90’s. It is composed of 74 superconducting RF cavities, assembled inside 22 cryostats.The new control systems are equipped with PLC, developed on the CERN UNICOS framework, which include Schneider and Siemens PLCs and various fieldbuses (Profibus DP and PA, WorldFIP). The control systems were developed in synergy between CERN and LNL in order to build, effectively and with an optimized use of resources, control systems allowing to enhance ease of operation, maintainability, and long-term availability.This paper describes (i) the cryogenic systems, with special focus on the design of the control systems hardware and software, (ii) the strategy adopted in order to achieve a synergic approach, and (iii) the commissioning results after the cool-down to 4.5 K of the cryomodules.

Instrumentation for localized superconducting cavity diagnostics

Superconducting accelerator cavities are now routinely operated at levels approaching the theoretical limit of niobium. To achieve these operating levels more information than is available from the RF excitation signal is required to characterize and determine fixes for the sources of performance limitations. This information is obtained using diagnostic techniques which complement the analysis of the RF signal. In this paper we describe the operation and select results from three of these diagnostic techniques: the use of large scale thermometer arrays, second sound wave defect location and high precision cavity imaging with the Kyoto camera.

Study of multipactor effect with applications to superconductive radiofrequency cavities

In this paper a one-dimensional Particle-in-Cell/Monte Carlo collision code has been used in order to study characteristics of multipactors. For multipactor to occur each electron striking the surface must generate more than one secondary on average. The ratio of primary to secondary electrons is given by the secondary emission yield. For this study, calculations were carried out by using Sternglass model that includes energy dependence of the secondary emission yield. The obtained simulation results for the pressure dependence of the breakdown time follow the scaling law. Number of electrons increases in time, while their mean energy decreases. Since secondary electron emission at the cavity surface plays an important role, simulation results, presented here, can help cavity designers predict multipacting issues before fabrication.

Design, Development & Functional Validation of Magnets system in support of 42 GHz Gyrotron in India

A multi institutional initiative is underway towards the development of 42 GHz, 200 kW gyrotron system in India under the frame work of Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. Indigenous realization comprising of design, fabrication, prototypes and functional validations of an appropriate Magnet System is one of the primary technological objective of these initiatives. The 42 GHz gyrotron magnet system comprises of a warm gun magnet, a NbTi/Cu based high homogenous superconducting cavity magnet and three warm collector magnets. The superconducting cavity magnet has been housed inside a low loss cryostat. The magnet system has been designed in accordance with gyrotron physics and engineering considerations respecting highly homogenous spatial field profile as well as maintaining steep gradient as per the compression and velocity ratios between the emission and resonator regions. The designed magnet system further ensures the co-linearity of the magnetic axis with that of the beam axis with custom winding techniques apart from a smooth collection of beam with the collector magnet profiles. The designed magnets have been wound after several R & D validations. The superconducting magnet has been housed inside a low loss designed cryostat with in-built radial and axial alignment flexibilities to certain extent. The cryostat further houses liquid helium port, liquid nitrogen ports, current communication ports, ports for monitoring helium level and other instrumentations apart from over-pressure safety intensive burst disks etc. The entire magnet system comprising of warm and superconducting magnets has been installed and integrated in the Gyrotron test set-up. The magnet system has been aligned in both warm and when the superconducting cavity magnet is cold. The integrated geometric axes have been experimentally ensured as well as the field profiles have been measured with the magnets being charged. Under experimental conditions, all magnets including the superconducting magnet have been charged to their nominal values with appropriate protection measures against the quench. This is the first time in India that a gyrotron specific magnet system with superconducting magnet has been realized.

Strong coupling of a single electron in silicon to a microwave photon.

Silicon is vital to the computing industry because of the high quality of its native oxide and well-established doping technologies. Isotopic purification has enabled quantum coherence times on the order of seconds, thereby placing silicon at the forefront of efforts to create a solid-state quantum processor. We demonstrate strong coupling of a single electron in a silicon double quantum dot to the photonic field of a microwave cavity, as shown by the observation of vacuum Rabi splitting. Strong coupling of a quantum dot electron to a cavity photon would allow for long-range qubit coupling and the long-range entanglement of electrons in semiconductor quantum dots.

High Luminosity LHC: challenges and plans

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is one of the largest scientific instruments ever built. Since opening up a new energy frontier for exploration in 2010, it has gathered a global user community working in fundamental particle physics and the physics of hadronic matter at extreme temperature and density. To sustain and extend its discovery potential, the LHC will undergo a major upgrade in the 2020s. This will increase its rate of collisions by a factor of five beyond the original design value and the integrated luminosity by a factor ten. The new configuration, known as High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC), will rely on a number of key innovations that push accelerator technology beyond its present limits. Among these are cutting-edge 11–12 T superconducting magnets, including Nb3Sn-based magnets never used in accelerators before, compact superconducting cavities for longitudinal beam rotation, new technology and physical processes for beam collimation. The dynamics of the HL-LHC beams will be also particularly challenging and this aspect is the main focus of this paper.

Multimode Strong Coupling in Superconducting Cavity Piezoelectromechanics.

High-frequency mechanical resonators subjected to low thermal phonon occupancy are easier to be prepared to the ground state by direct cryogenic cooling. Their extreme stiffness, however, poses a significant challenge for external interrogations. Here we demonstrate a superconducting cavity piezoelectromechanical system in which multiple modes of a bulk acoustic resonator oscillating at 10GHz are coupled to a planar microwave superconducting resonator with a cooperativity exceeding 2×10^{3}, deep in the strong coupling regime. By implementation of the noncontact coupling scheme to reduce mechanical dissipation, the system exhibits excellent coherence characterized by a frequency-quality-factor product of 7.5×10^{15} Hz. Interesting dynamics of classical temporal oscillations of the microwave energy is observed, implying the coherent conversion between phonons and photons. The demonstrated high-frequency cavity piezoelectromechanics is compatible with superconducting qubits, representing an important step towards hybrid quantum systems.

Production of superconducting 1.3-GHz cavities for the European X-ray Free Electron Laser

The production of over 800 1.3-GHz superconducting (SC) cavities for the European X-ray Free Electron Laser (EXFEL), the largest in the history of cavity fabrication, has now been successfully completed. In the past, manufacturing of SC resonators was only partly industrialized; the main challenge for the EXFEL production was transferring the high-performance surface treatment to industry. The production was shared by the two companies RI Research Instruments GmbH (RI) and Ettore Zanon S.p.A. (EZ) on the principle of “build to print”. DESY provided the high-purity niobium and NbTi for the resonators. Conformity with the European Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) was developed together with the contracted notified body TUEV NORD. New or upgraded infrastructure has been established at both companies. Series production and delivery of fully-equipped cavities ready for cold rf testing was started in December 2012, and finished in December 2015. More than half the cavities delivered to DESY as specified (referred to “as received”) fulfilled the EXFEL specification. Further improvement of low-performing cavities was achieved by supplementary surface treatment at DESY or at the companies. The final achieved average gradient exceeded the EXFEL specification by approximately 25%. In the following paper, experience with the 1.3-GHz cavity production for EXFEL is reported and the main lessons learned are discussed.

Measurement of a microwave field amplitude beyond the standard quantum limit

We report a quantum measurement beyond the standard quantum limit (SQL) for the amplitude of a small displacement acting on a cavity field. This measurement uses as resource an entangled mesoscopic state, prepared by the resonant interaction of a circular Rydberg atom with a field stored in a superconducting cavity. We analyse the measurement process in terms of Fisher information and prove that it is, in principle, optimal. The achieved experimental precision, 2.4 dB below the SQL, is well understood in terms of experimental imperfections.This method could be transposed to other systems, particularly to circuit QED, for the precise measurements of weak forces acting on oscillators.

Entanglement and Mixedness of a Superconducting Qubit Coupled to an Open Superconducting Cavity

We investigate entanglement and mixedness of a superconducting qubit coupled to the damped cavity field. We introduce a new measure for the mixedness and find that the phase damping of the cavity leads to simultaneous long-death of the entropy squeezing, the purity of the qubit states, and the entanglement of the field–qubit system.

Towards achieving strong coupling in three-dimensional-cavity with solid state spin resonance

We investigate the microwave magnetic field confinement in several microwave three-dimensional (3D)-cavities, using a 3D finite-element analysis to determine the best design and achieve a strong coupling between microwave resonant cavity photons and solid state spins. Specifically, we design cavities for achieving strong coupling of electromagnetic modes with an ensemble of nitrogen vacancy (NV) defects in diamond. We report here a novel and practical cavity design with a magnetic filling factor of up to 4 times (2 times higher collective coupling) than previously achieved using one-dimensional superconducting cavities with a small mode volume. In addition, we show that by using a double-split resonator cavity, it is possible to achieve up to 200 times better cooperative factor than the currently demonstrated with NV in diamond. These designs open up further opportunities for studying strong and ultra-strong coupling effects on spins in solids using alternative systems with a wider range of design parameters. The strong coupling of paramagnetic spin defects with a photonic cavity is used in quantum computer architecture, to interface electrons spins with photons, facilitating their read-out and processing of quantum information. To achieve this, the combination of collective coupling of spins and cavity mode is more feasible and offers a promising method. This is a relevant milestone to develop advanced quantum technology and to test fundamental physics principles.