Singing Conditions Research Articles

Trigger mechanism for a singing cavitating tip vortex

The discrete tone radiated from tip vortex cavitation (TVC), known as ‘vortex singing’, was recognized in 1989, but its triggering remains unclear for over thirty years. In this study, the desinent cavitation number and viscous correction are applied to describe the dynamics of cavitation bubbles and the dispersion relation of cavity interfacial waves. The wavenumber-frequency spectrum of the cavity radius from the experiment in CSSRC indicates that singing waves predominantly consist of the stationary double helical modes (kθ = 2- and -2+) and the breathing mode (kθ = 0-), rather than standing waves as assumed in previous literatures. Moreover, two trigger mechanisms, expressed by two triggering lines, are proposed: the twisted TVC, initially at rest, is driven into motion through the corrected natural frequency (fn) due to the step change of the far-field pressure. Subsequently, the frequency associated with the zero-group-velocity point (ῶzgv) at kθ = 0- is excited through ῶi, the frequency at the intersection of dispersion curves at kθ = 0- and -2+, or ῶj, the frequency at the intersection of dispersion curves at kθ = 0- and 2-, corresponding to two types of the vortex singing triggering. These solutions, without empirical parameters, are validated using singing conditions provided by CSSRC and G.T.H., respectively. Furthermore, the coherence and the cross-power spectral density spectrum indicates a large-scale breathing wave propagating along the singing cavity surface and travelling from downstream to hydrofoil tip, providing us a comprehensive understanding for the triggering of vortex singing.

Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscle Activity and Vocal Economy in Professionally Trained Voices During Vocal Vibrato

Summary PurposeThe purpose of the present study was to determine the extrinsic laryngeal muscle activity and vocal economy during two different singing conditions (straight-tone singing vs. vibrato singing) over a physiologically relevant singing range. MethodsThirty professional singers or voice coaches participated in the study. The participants sang a sustained /a:/ vowel for approximately 5 seconds, once in straight-tone singing conditions and once more in vibrato. The target pitches were C3, F3, A3, C4, F4, A4, and C5. Surface electromyographic (sEMG) measures were performed in the infrahyoid (IH) muscle region and the suprahyoid (SH) muscle region. Contact quotient (CQ), sound pressure level (SPL), and fundamental frequencies were measured to derive the electroglottographic-based vocal economy parameter quasi-output cost ratio (QOCR). ResultssEMG measures show that IH and SH muscles significantly increased in activity with ascending pitch. IH and SH muscle activity were significantly higher when singing in vibrato than straight-tone. Moreover, SPL also increased with ascending pitch and when sung in vibrato. CQ increased and QOCR decreased as pitch ascended but did not significantly change when sung in vibrato. ConclusionSinging higher pitches were generally associated with higher extrinsic laryngeal muscle activity and lower QOCR values. When comparing the two singing conditions, the extrinsic laryngeal muscle activity was higher during vibrato, implicating that the IH and the SH muscles may contribute to rhythmic pulsations of pitch changes. Although the QOCR value did not show significant differences between the two singing conditions, a significantly high SPL during vibrato may indicate acoustical and physiological advantages while singing in vibrato.

INVESTIGATING THE NEURAL CORRELATES OF SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL SINGING IN PERSONS WITH DEMENTIA

Abstract Music interventions for persons with Alzheimer’s Disease and related dementias (PwADRD) have documented psychological benefits; however, the neurological correlates underlying these advantages remain less certain. Using functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), the present study i) investigated within-person patterns of cortical oxygenation during choral vs. individual singing; ii) explored how singing context (choral vs. individual) modulated patterns of functional connectivity (FC) within and across frontal and parietal cortices; and iii) leveraged these functional activations as predictors of cognitive status (degree of impairment) in a series of discriminant function analyses (DFA). Participants were 13 PwADRD who volunteered from a larger, ongoing social-cognitive choir intervention. fNIRS data were collected using a TechEn Cw6 system during both choral and individual singing conditions. Paired sample t-tests evaluated differences in activation patterns between singing conditions, with DFA used to determine whether these activations and neuropsychological function were predictive of between-person differences in cognitive impairment. Significant differences in cerebral oxygenation were identified in the right anterior PFC, with individual singing associated with significantly greater cortical oxygenation relative to group singing. Although not significant, individual singing was also associated with bilateral increases in cortical oxygenation across the majority of fNIRS channels, as well as increased FC, relative to group singing. The DFA analyses were not significant. This novel study is the first to examine differences in music-cognition correlates across environmental contexts for PwADRD. Patterns of functional activation suggest that choral singing in particular may represent an optimal lifestyle activity, placing comparatively fewer demands on cognitive function.

Towards a Vocal Constraints Model of Melodic Expectancy: Evidence from Two Listening Experiments

Where does a listener's anticipation of the next note in an unfamiliar melody come from? One view is that expectancies reflect innate grouping biases; another is that expectancies reflect statistical learning through previous musical exposure. Listening experiments support both views but in limited contexts, e.g., using only instrumental renditions of melodies. Here we report replications of two previous experiments, but with additional manipulations of timbre (instrumental vs. sung renditions) and register (modal vs. upper). Following a proposal that melodic expectancy is vocally constrained, we predicted that sung renditions would encourage an expectation that the next tone will be a “singable” one, operationalized here as one having an absolute pitch height that falls within the modal register. Listeners heard melodic fragments and gave goodness-of-fit ratings on the final tone (Experiment 1) or rated how certain they were about what the next note would be (Experiment 2). Ratings in the instrumental conditions were consistent with the original findings, but differed significantly from ratings in the sung conditions, which were more consistent with the vocal constraints model. We discuss how a vocal constraints model could be extended to include expectations about duration and tonality.

The Role of Theatrical Costume in the Creation of Artistic Image in Opera Performance

The influence of the peculiarities of the theatrical costume on the creation of artistic image of opera performance and its character is considered. The essence of the artistic image in musical art in the context of communication "composer - performer-interpreter - listener" is clarified. The differences between the artistic image of a musical and theatrical performance, its creation in the context of the commonwealth of conductor, director, scenographer, costume designer, choreographer and perception by the audience through performers are established. The artistic image of the performance as a visual embodiment of the supertask, its formation by metaphor, hyperbole, comparison or allegory is revealed. The need to adhere to a single style in the conceptual vision and artistic solution of the play by the director, scenographer, and costume designer is outlined. The artistic image of the character is described as a synthesis of the unity of internal and external manifestations of the personal characteristics of the hero, subordinated to the idea of the work. The functional purpose of the theatrical costume as an important element in the creation of the artistic image of the character and the play is analyzed. The dependence of the artistic expressiveness of the costume on the stylistic unity of all its components is emphasized. The peculiarities of the use of symbols and metaphors in theatrical costumes to reveal a certain subtext of the play's drama are revealed. The features of creating a costume for a musical and theatrical performance according to comfortable singing conditions are characterized. The concept of scenographic design and stylization of the theater costume according to the director's interpretation of the opera performance is defined. It has been found that the artistic reconstruction of the ancient opera is characterized by a decorative solution and stylization of costumes in the context of hedonistic court aesthetics of the Baroque era, while the traditional representation of classical opera is characterized by a historically reliable scenographic solution and stylization of costumes in the context of realistic aesthetics, appropriate to the time and place of action, which occur in the work. It is proved that modern interpretations of ancient, classical and modern operas are characterized by conventional symbolic nature of scenographic solutions and stylization of costumes in the context of postmodern aesthetics. Prospects for further scientific exploration of selected issues related to the specifics of creating an artistic image of an opera performance in non-traditional locations are predicted.

Effects of Choir Singing on Mental Health: Results of an Online Cross-sectional Study

The study aims to quantify the impact of sociodemographic, personal, and choir-related characteristics on perceived singing well-being and mental health changes due to singing. 847 German adult choristers (233m, 614f, age 18-86 years) were interviewed in a cross-sectional online questionnaire study that included questions on singing well-being, vocal and choral characteristics, the adapted versions of the Bochum change questionnaire (BCQ2000), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-09), and the WHO-5 well-being index. Multiple regression models were calculated with singing related well-being or mental health changes as dependent variables and individual and choir-related characteristics as factors. Predictors of mental health benefits were analyzed in gender subgroups and in persons with a low or normal/high score on the WHO-5. On average, participants rated the impact of singing on well-being and mental health changes positively. Subgroup analysis revealed smaller but significant positive mental health effects in men compared to women and in persons with a low WHO-5 score compared to those with a normal/high score. Education level and relationship status were not significantly related to subjects' perceptions of mental health benefits, whereas singing well-being increased with age in women and in participants with a low WHO-5 score. Larger improvements in mental health came along with longer choir membership, more singing hours per week, and a high engagement in choral activity. Significant positive associations of well-being with optimal singing behavior and vocal warm-ups were observed. Results suggest that singers of all ages, genders, and educational backgrounds perceive the choral experience as beneficial to their well-being and mental health. Positive effects are related to WHO-5 scores, engagement in choral activity, and optimal singing conditions. On average, women rate singing benefits higher than men and singers with preexisting vocal pathologies or low WHO-5 benefit slightly less.

Changes in mood, oxytocin, and cortisol following group and individual singing: A pilot study

Group singing elevates mood, increases social bonding, and regulates stress. However, the question remains as to how much of the singer’s mood-boost is derived from social aspects of group singing and how much can be achieved through singing alone. In the current study, we adopted a sociobiological approach to investigate the underpinnings of the mood-boosting effect of singing. Using a within-subjects design, self-report mood, salivary oxytocin, and salivary cortisol were assessed before and after group and individual singing conditions. This study uncovered several important findings: group singing elevated mood, whereas individual singing did not. Importantly, although both group and individual singing led to decreases in cortisol, only group singing led to increases in oxytocin. Further analysis revealed that oxytocin, but not cortisol, significantly correlated with mood. These findings suggest that the mood-boosting effect of singing is likely due to social aspects and is influenced by changes in oxytocin.

Effects of Varied Semi-Occluded Vocal Tract Exercises on Acoustic and Perceptual Measures of Music Theatre Singers: A Pilot Study

ABSTRACT Recent investigations of semi-occluded vocal tract exercises (SOVTEs) have indicated possible benefits for voice therapy and for choral and classical singing. Few researchers have investigated SOVTEs with contemporary commercial music (CCM) singers. The current study examined perceptual and acoustic effects of five sung conditions:/m/, lip trill, drinking straw phonation (6 mm diameter), stirring straw phonation (2.5 mm diameter), and unoccluded/a/(control). Six participants sang a music theatre solo excerpt prior to and after using one of the SOVTEs, which were randomized with the control condition over five days. Acoustic analyses of the final note and singer self reports of vocal effort provided data for analysis. Results indicated some trends toward improvements in acoustic measures of the SOVTEs compared to the/a/condition, though no particular exercise emerged as most effective. Singers reported potential benefits for all the exercises, with stirring straw rated as having the lowest posttest effort and lip trill rated as having the most robust across-the-board effect. Other results were largely idiosyncratic. These results suggest there may be benefits for SOVTEs in music theatre singing, but it may take some sleuthing for voice teachers to help each student discover which exercise is most individually beneficial.

Does doubled singing increase children’s accuracy? A re-examination of previous findings

Studies comparing solo singing to doubled singing indicate contrasting findings as to whether children evince superior solo or doubled singing. Previous findings have indicated: (a) superior solo singing; (b) superior doubled singing; or (c) no significant difference. A systematic review of studies meeting the inclusion criteria ( N = 6) was undertaken to examine factors leading to these conflicting results. Next, a calculation of effect sizes that were unreported in previous research was based on published ANOVA tables, and expressed using Partial Eta-Squared. In direct comparisons of solo to doubled singing conditions, two studies reported that children sing more accurately in doubled singing; two studies reported more accurate solo singing; and two studies reported no significant difference by performance in the two conditions. The results indicate medium-to-large effect sizes in both directions. Several factors were enumerated to explain the contrasting findings: test administration procedures, song familiarity, vocal models, scoring methods, and teacher/researcher familiarity among the participants.

Please don’t stop the music: Song completion in patients with aphasia

Aphasia, an acquired language disorder resulting from brain damage, affects over one million individuals in the United States alone. Many persons with aphasia (PWA), particularly those with non-fluent aphasia, have been observed to be able to sing the lyrics of songs more easily than they can speak the same words. Remarkably, even humming a melody can facilitate speech output in PWA, and this has been capitalized on in therapies such as Melodic Intonation Therapy. The current study examined PWA’s ability to complete phrases from songs by either singing, speaking, or intoning them in an experimental stem-completion format. Twenty PWA of varying severity, all but one of whom had aphasia as a result of stroke, and 20 age-matched healthy controls participated in the task. The task consisted of three conditions (sung, spoken, and melodic) each consisting of 20 well-known songs. Participants heard the first half of a phrase that was either sung in its original format (sung condition), spoken (spoken condition), or intoned on the syllable “bum,” (melodic condition) and were asked to complete the phrase according to the format in which the stimulus was presented. PWA achieved the highest accuracy in the sung condition, followed by the spoken and then melodic conditions, while controls scored comparably in the sung and spoken condition and much lower in the melodic condition. PWA and controls were better able to access and produce both the melody and lyrics of songs in the sung condition (when both components were presented together), compared to when the melody and lyrics of songs were presented in isolation. Here, melody confers an advantage for word retrieval for PWA, as lyric production is better in a sung context, and these results substantiate the theoretical framework of MIT. Additionally, the present results may be attributed to the integration hypothesis, which postulates that the text and tune of a song are integrated in memory. Interestingly, a subset of the most severe PWA scored higher in the melodic condition relative to the spoken condition, while this pattern was not found for less severe PWA and for controls. Taken together, our results suggest that singing appears to influence PWA when trying to access the lyrics of songs; access to melody is preserved in PWA even while they exhibit profound and diverse language impairments. Findings may have implications for using music as a more widely implemented tool in speech therapy for PWA.

Facilitating Lexical Acquisition in Beginner Learners of Italian through Spoken or Sung Lyrics

The effects of song and elaboration were assessed on the acquisition and retention of lexical items by beginner learners of Italian. Lexical acquisition investigated through an incidental learning experiment based on the premise that growth in L2 vocabulary can be facilitated by subvocal rehearsal and elaborate processing of lexical items. Participants were divided into a control group and four treatment groups. Treatment groups were exposed to a song either in a sung condition or read as a poem, and groups completed lexical tasks designed with low or high levels of elaboration. It was hypothesized that (a) song groups would score higher than poem groups, and that (b) high elaboration groups would score higher than low elaboration groups. With scoring based on Wesche and Paribakht’s Vocabulary Knowledge Scale, at post-test and delayed post-test the song/high elaboration group scored higher than all other groups in both receptive and productive vocabulary learning, suggesting that song and high elaboration are effective in facilitating the acquisition and retention of L2 lexical items and that song and high elaboration activities should be implemented in the L2 curriculum.

Enhanced Neonatal Brain Responses To Sung Streams Predict Vocabulary Outcomes By Age 18 Months

Words and melodies are some of the basic elements infants are able to extract early in life from the auditory input. Whether melodic cues contained in songs can facilitate word-form extraction immediately after birth remained unexplored. Here, we provided converging neural and computational evidence of the early benefit of melodies for language acquisition. Twenty-eight neonates were tested on their ability to extract word-forms from continuous flows of sung and spoken syllabic sequences. We found different brain dynamics for sung and spoken streams and observed successful detection of word-form violations in the sung condition only. Furthermore, neonatal brain responses for sung streams predicted expressive vocabulary at 18 months as demonstrated by multiple regression and cross-validation analyses. These findings suggest that early neural individual differences in prosodic speech processing might be a good indicator of later language outcomes and could be considered as a relevant factor in the development of infants’ language skills.

Word Intelligibility in Multi-voice Singing: The Influence of Chorus Size

This study investigated how the intelligibility of sung words is influenced by the number of singers in a choral music style. The study used repeated measures factorial. One hundred forty-nine participants listened to recordings of spoken and sung English words and attempted to identify the words. Each stimuli word was sung or spoken in sync by either one, four, eight, sixteen, or twenty-seven members of a high-quality Soprano Alto Tenor Bass (SATB) choir. In general, single-voice word recognition was higher than multi-voice word recognition in the sung condition. However, the difference between four concurrent singers and the full choir was negligible; that is, reduced intelligibility with multiple singers shows little sensitivity to the number of singers. The principal effect of voice density on intelligibility is found to occur with coda consonants-a result consistent with the importance many choral conductors attribute to coordinating word offsets. In particular, the plosives /b/, /d/, /g/, and /p/ are easily confused. Coda liquids (/l/,/r/) were also found to be a source of confusion. Finally, an increasing density of voices appears to have a facilitating effect for the coda nasal /m/. Groups of four or more choral singers do appear to be less intelligible than single singers, although the observed effect is modest. However, increasing the number of singers in a choral texture beyond four singers does not appear to further degrade intelligibility.

The neurochemistry and social flow of singing: bonding and oxytocin.

Music is used in healthcare to promote physical and psychological well-being. As clinical applications of music continue to expand, there is a growing need to understand the biological mechanisms by which music influences health. Here we explore the neurochemistry and social flow of group singing. Four participants from a vocal jazz ensemble were conveniently sampled to sing together in two separate performances: pre-composed and improvised. Concentrations of plasma oxytocin and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) were measured before and after each singing condition to assess levels of social affiliation, engagement and arousal. A validated assessment of flow state was administered after each singing condition to assess participants' absorption in the task. The feasibility of the research methods were assessed and initial neurochemical data was generated on group singing. Mean scores of the flow state scale indicated that participants experienced flow in both the pre-composed (M = 37.06) and improvised singing conditions (M = 34.25), with no significant difference between conditions. ACTH concentrations decreased in both conditions, significantly so in the pre-composed singing condition, which may have contributed to the social flow experience. Mean plasma oxytocin levels increased only in response to improvised singing, with no significant difference between improvised and pre-composed singing conditions observed. The results indicate that group singing reduces stress and arousal, as measured by ACTH, and induces social flow in participants. The effects of pre-composed and improvised group singing on oxytocin are less clear. Higher levels of plasma oxytocin in the improvised condition may perhaps be attributed to the social effects of improvising musically with others. Further research with a larger sample size is warranted.

Learning sung lyrics aids retention in normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease

Previous studies have suggested that presenting to-be-memorised lyrics in a singing mode, instead of a speaking mode, may facilitate learning and retention in normal adults. In this study, seven healthy older adults and eight participants with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) learned and memorised lyrics that were either sung or spoken. We measured the percentage of words recalled from these lyrics immediately and after 10 minutes. Moreover, in AD participants, we tested the effect of successive learning episodes for one spoken and one sung excerpt, as well as long-term retention after a four week delay. Sung conditions did not influence lyrics recall in immediate recall but increased delayed recall for both groups. In AD, learning slopes for sung and spoken lyrics did not show a significant difference across successive learning episodes. However, sung lyrics showed a slight advantage over spoken ones after a four week delay. These results suggest that singing may increase the load of initial learning but improve long-term retention of newly acquired verbal information. We further propose some recommendations on how to maximise these effects and make them relevant for therapeutic applications.

Young and intense: FoxP2 immunoreactivity in Area X varies with age, song stereotypy, and singing in male zebra finches

FOXP2 is a transcription factor functionally relevant for learned vocalizations in humans and songbirds. In songbirds, FoxP2 mRNA expression in the medium spiny neurons of the basal ganglia song nucleus Area X is developmentally regulated and varies with singing conditions in different social contexts. How individual neurons in Area X change FoxP2 expression across development and in social contexts is not known, however. Here we address this critical gap in our understanding of FoxP2 as a link between neuronal networks and behavior. We used a statistically unbiased analysis of FoxP2-immunoreactivity (FoxP2-IR) on a neuron-by-neuron basis and found a bimodal distribution of FoxP2-IR neurons in Area X: weakly-stained and intensely-stained. The density of intensely-stained FoxP2-IR neurons was 10 times higher in juveniles than in adults, exponentially decreased with age, and was negatively correlated with adult song stability. Three-week old neurons labeled with BrdU were more than five times as likely to be intensely-stained than weakly-stained. The density of FoxP2-IR putative migratory neurons with fusiform-shaped nuclei substantially decreased as birds aged. The density of intensely-stained FoxP2-IR neurons was not affected by singing whereas the density of weakly-stained FoxP2-IR neurons was. Together, these data indicate that young Area X medium spiny neurons express FoxP2 at high levels and decrease expression as they become integrated into existing neural circuits. Once integrated, levels of FoxP2 expression correlate with singing behavior. Together, these findings raise the possibility that FoxP2 levels may orchestrate song learning and song stereotypy in adults by a common mechanism.

Long-Term Horizontal Vocal Directivity of Opera Singers: Effects of Singing Projection and Acoustic Environment

Vocal directivity refers to how directional the sound is that comes from a singer's mouth, that is, whether the sound is focused into a narrow stream of sound projecting in front of the singers or whether it is spread out all around the singer. This study investigates the long-term vocal directivity and acoustic power of professional opera singers and how these vary among subjects, among singing projections, and among vastly different acoustic environments. The vocal sound of eight professional opera singers (six females and two males) was measured in anechoic and reverberant rooms and in a recital hall. Subjects sang in four different ways: (1) paying great attention to intonation; (2) singing as in performance, with all the emotional connection intended by the composer; (3) imagining a large auditorium; and (4) imagining a small theatre. The same song was sung by all singers in all conditions. A head and torso simulator (HATS), radiating sound from its mouth, was used for comparison in all situations. Results show that individual singers have quite consistent long-term average directivity, even across conditions. Directivity varies substantially among singers. Singers are more directional than the standard HATS (which is a physical model of a talking person). The singer's formant region of the spectrum exhibits greater directivity than the lower-frequency range, and results indicate that singers control directivity (at least, incidentally) for different singing conditions as they adjust the spectral emphasis of their voices through their formants.

Dissociation between singing and speaking in expressive aphasia: The role of song familiarity

There are several reports on the ability aphasic patients have to sing familiar songs, despite having severe speech impairments. Based on these observations it was also suggested that singing might improve speech production. However, recent experimental studies with aphasic patients found no evidence to illustrate that singing improves word production under controlled experimental conditions. This study investigated the role of singing during repetition of word phrases in a patient severely affected with non-fluent aphasia (GS) who had an almost complete lesion of the left hemisphere. GS showed a pronounced increase in the number of correctly reproduced words during singing as compared to speaking excerpts of familiar lyrics. This dissociation between singing and speaking was not seen for novel song lyrics, regardless of whether these were coupled with an unfamiliar, a familiar, or a spontaneously generated melody during the singing conditions. These findings propose that singing might help word phrase production in at least some cases of severe expressive aphasia. However, the association of melody and text in long-term memory seems to be responsible for this effect.

Our Singing Children

The purpose of this article is to help the music educator maximize the time allotted to singing with children in the classroom. It will address what teachers and children in the classroom may do to develop and improve singing accuracy, including some suggestions for implementing instruction techniques, planning singing activities, and arranging the singing environment. The article includes descriptions of “presinging activities” that a teacher may use to help children develop a foundation for singing accuracy, a discussion of appropriate vocal models, and an examination of the use of various kinesthetic activities and breath management techniques to increase singing accuracy. Some considerations regarding singing in the classroom, such as frequency of music instruction periods, selection of appropriate songs, use of text or neutral syllables, performance with or without accompaniment, and individual or group singing conditions, are also presented.

Lexical learning in sung and spoken story script contexts

Although most children seem to love music, our understanding of the role it plays in facilitating speech and language learning is limited, as is research validating its efficacy in the clinical setting. The purpose of this study was to examine how singing affects children’s quick incidental learning (QUIL) of novel vocabulary terms. Sixteen children with language delay and mild developmental delays were presented with spoken and sung story scripts containing eight novel words over two experimental sessions. Lexical probes indicated that children’s naming and comprehension of target lexical items did not significantly differ as a result of hearing sung versus spoken scripts versions. A significant increase was noted in the number of children’s unsolicited target word productions from Session 1 to Session 2 in the Sung Condition, indicating that sung input may enhance only particular aspects of quick incidental word learning.