Summated Scale Research Articles

Communication and healthcare complexity in people with little or no English: the Communication Complexity Score

Objective. To investigate the level of healthcare complexity of patients with limited English and the probability of use of professional interpreters, at a tertiary hospital in a multicultural area of Sydney, Australia. Design. A multilingual telephone survey was matched with medical record reviews to assess modes of communication in a sample of 258 patients with limited English from nine language groups. The Model of Interpreter Usage and Complexity was used to explain the association between clinical complexity and interpreter usage. To measure clinical complexity, a summative rating scale, the Communication Complexity Score (CCS) was constructed comprising eight weighted scores related to admission status, urgency of admission, triage category, medical emergencies/events, HDU/ICU admission, numbers of medications, invasiveness of procedures, and diagnosis. Robust Multiple Logistic Regression was used for modelling the likelihood of interpreter usage with different levels of complexity. Results. Of the 205 patients (79%) who spoke little or no English, 31% reported usage of professional interpreters. There was a positive association between CCS and usage of interpreters. Patients with high and moderate CCSs were significantly more likely to have used interpreters (OR=32.9, 95% CI 12.4–87.1 and OR=10.8, 95% CI 3.2–36.5, respectively). The CCS was found to have good psychometric properties and to be internally consistent (Cronbach's Alpha 0.84). The model was found to have good predictive power (Area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve 0.90). Conclusion. While most patients (69%) had no interpreter, patients with high or moderate CCSs were more likely to have an interpreter, demonstrating a robust relationship between these two variables. Poor usage of interpreters in the Emergency Department was observed. Family and friends had a significant role in communication. These findings have important safety, policy, and practice implications for patients with limited English proficiency.

Negative Impact and Positive Value in Caregiving: Validation of the COPE Index in a Six-Country Sample of Carers

The present study attempts to further validate the COPE Index on a large sample of carers drawn from six European countries. We used a cross-sectional survey, with approximately 1,000 carers recruited in each of six countries by means of a common standard evaluation protocol. Our saturation recruitment of a designated quota of carers occurred by means of several channels, in identified geographical zones within countries. Interviews were carried out with primary informal carers by use of a common assessment tool. We subjected items of the COPE Index to principal component analysis and we assessed emergent components through the use of Cronbach's alpha reliability procedures. We examined factor components as summative scales for confirmatory correlations with caregiving and psychological variables. Three components emerged, which we identified as the negative impact of caregiving, the positive value of caregiving, and the quality of support for caregiving. Internal consistency was good for negative impact and satisfactory for positive value and quality of support. Negative value was most consistently and strongly correlated with caregiving and psychological variables, although we did find diverse associations between these variables and the COPE Index subscales. The COPE Index is a brief, first-stage assessment of some sophistication that can enable health and social care professionals to develop appropriately targeted interventions to enhance the positive aspects of the caregiving experience and quality of support, as well as reduce the negative impacts of caregiving.

User satisfaction with child and adolescent mental health services

Child and adolescent mental health service units (CAMHS) play an important role in the supply of services to children and adolescents with mental illness. The purpose of this study was to examine the service unit effect on parent satisfaction with outpatient treatment. The study was undertaken in 49 of 72 Norwegian outpatient CAMHS in 2004. A total of 2253 of the parents who were asked to participate (87%) responded. Parent satisfaction was measured using two summated scales: clinician interaction/information and treatment outcome. Multilevel analyses were used to assess the contribution of the service units to satisfaction and to investigate patient level predictors of parent satisfaction. About 96-98% of the parent satisfaction variance could be attributed to factors within CAMHS, leaving only 2-4% of the variance attributable to the CAMHS level. Parents of patients aged 0-6 years were more satisfied than older patients' parents. Longer treatment episodes were positively associated with satisfaction. Parents whose children had been referred with externalizing symptoms were less satisfied with treatment outcome than those referred for internalizing symptoms. Waiting time was negatively associated with treatment outcome satisfaction. Adjustments for patient characteristics did not substantially change the relative effect of CAMHS on satisfaction ratings. The results indicate that information from user satisfaction surveys has clear limitations as an indicator of CAMHS quality. From a quality improvement perspective, the factors affecting the variance within CAMHS are of dominating importance compared to factors affecting between CAMHS variance.

Older adults' drug benefit beliefs: construct definition and measure development

Background The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement and Modernization Act of 2003 provides coverage of outpatient prescription drugs for Medicare beneficiaries. Although much has been learned since the program's implementation, a context within which this information can be understood is lacking. Objective The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable and valid multi-item instrument measuring beliefs about Medicare prescription drug benefits. Methods Survey items were generated using focus group transcripts, other surveys on the Medicare Part “D” program, and past studies of choice and satisfaction in drug insurance programs. Using data from the survey pilot test, item and reliability analyses were used to reduce and refine an initial pool of items. Data then were collected from a cross-sectional, mail survey of older adults living in Minnesota. Data were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis. Summated rating scales then were constructed and assessed further using reliability analyses. Construct validity of summated scales was examined by comparing scale scores across response categories of survey items that collected information on general political attitudes, perceptions of the Medicare Part “D” program, health status, and health care utilization and demographics. Results The adjusted response rate for the main survey was 55.98% (744/1329). Iterative factor analysis produced 2 interpretable scales. The first, termed “access/equity” (13 items, Cronbach's α = 0.89) measures beliefs that a Medicare drug benefit should both provide affordable prescription drugs for beneficiaries and do this in a manner that is equitable for all participants. The second, termed “comprehensibility” (6 items, Cronbach's α = 0.80) assesses beliefs that regulations governing a Medicare drug benefit should be easily understood. Discriminant validity tests suggest that these measures behave in a manner consistent with related research in these areas. Conclusions Measures of 2 facets of older adults' drug benefit beliefs were developed using a multiple step procedure. Future research could focus on developing a better understanding of other facets of these beliefs and sound methods of measurement.

Attitude Toward Homosexuality among Anglicans in England: the Effects of Theological Orientation and Personality

Disapproval of homosexuality (homonegativity) was assessed using a four-item summated scale in a sample of 7,295 readers of the Church Times who were regular worshippers at Anglican churches in England. The theological orientation of respondents was assessed on three scales measuring preference for liberal or conservative, catholic or evangelical, and charismatic or non-charismatic expressions of faith. Individual differences in personality were assessed using the abbreviated form of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised (EPQR-A). Scores on the homonegativity scale were generally high, indicating disapproval of same-sex intercourse, same-sex marriage and the ordination or consecration of practising homosexuals. After allowing for sex and age, the main predictors of homonegativity were the three measures of individual theological orientation, each having an independent and additive effect. All four scales of the EPQR-A predicted homonegativity to some extent, but the most important relationships were a negative correlation with the psychoticism scale and a positive correlation with the lie scale. In liberal catholic and broad churches, it appeared that those who were psychologically most susceptible to social conditioning were most likely to be homonegative, but this was not the case in conservative evangelical churches.

Reliability and construct validity of the Participation in Life Activities Scale for children and adolescents with asthma: an instrument evaluation study

BackgroundThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the reliability and construct validity of the Participation in Life Activities Scale, an instrument designed to measure older school-age child and early adolescent level of involvement in chosen pursuits.MethodsA cross-sectional design was used. The convenience sample consisted of 313 school-age children and early adolescents with asthma, ages 9–15 years. The self-report summative scale of interest is a 3-indicator survey. Higher scores are reflective of higher levels of participation. Internal consistency reliability and construct validity for the entire sample and sub groups of the sample were evaluated.ResultsThe instrument was deemed sound for the entire sample as well as sub groups based on sex, race, age, socioeconomic status, and severity of illness. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for internal consistency reliability for the entire sample was .74. Exploratory factor analysis indicated a single component solution (loadings .79–.85) accounting for 66% of the explained variance. Construct validity was established by testing the posed relationship between participation in life activities scores and severity of illness. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a good fit between the data and specified model, χ2(10, n = 302) = 8.074, p = .62.ConclusionThis instrument could be used (a) in clinical settings to diagnose restricted participation in desired activities, guide decision-making about treatment plans to increase participation, and motivate behavioral change in the management of asthma; and (b) in research settings to explore factors influencing and consequences of restricted and unrestricted participation, and as an outcome measure to evaluate the effectiveness of programs designed to foster child and early adolescent management of asthma.

The Polychronic—Monochronic Tendency Model

Polychronicity has traditionally been defined as a form of behavior wherein a person engages in two or more activities during the same block of time, while monochronicity occurs when a person engages in one activity at a time. These concepts have become increasingly relevant in discussions of `time personality', worktime in the home, and technological impacts on time. Other underlying dimensions of polychronicity also exist, such as preferences and feelings towards whether to combine activities or not. In order to reflect this more complex perspective, a validated, updated measure of a person's polychronic—monochronic overall tendency is needed. The present study is a re-inquiry and extension of the Polychronic Attitude Index (PAI), introduced in 1991. In the current research plan we propose, develop, and validate a general five-item comprehensive `reflective' single factor extended model. The general Polychronic—Monochronic Tendency Model is constructed using confirmatory factor analysis. The five-item summated scale from this model is named the Polychronic—Monochronic Tendency Scale (PMTS). A series of five separate studies were used to variously test for social desirability response bias, internal consistency, discriminant validity, and nomological validity. The PAI is also compared statistically to PMTS with the latter being clearly stronger. A discussion of the results and research implications are presented.

Socio-demographic and health-related factors affecting depression of the Greek population in later life: an analysis using SHARE data.

Depression in later life is one of the most prevalent conditions forecasted to rise to the second most burdensome health condition worldwide by 2020. Using data from the 2004 Study of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE: release 1) on 857 Greek males and 1,032 females aged 50 or higher this study explores, firstly, associations of socio-demographic and health related indicators with depressive symptoms (EURO-D) and, secondly, attempts to identify patterns and structures among them. To achieve the first objective, the 12-item summated EURO-D scale is used in binary form with a cut-off point clinically validated by the EURODEP. Use of logistic regression pinpoints strong associations with gender, years of education, co-morbidity, disability, cognitive function and past depression. Women, less educated persons, those with poor physical health, declining cognitive function and a history of depression are significantly more at risk of scoring higher than three at the EURO-D scale. The role of age is not as clear. To achieve the second objective, multiple correspondence analysis is used in the first instance and factor analysis for binary data subsequently; two components are identified within EURO-D and continuous factor scores are produced. These factors are called "affective suffering" and "motivation". Linear regression models reveal that the first component is responsible for the gender while the second for the age differentials in EURO-D; additionally we find that, apart from physical health indicators which are strongly related to both factors, other associations differ. Further exploration of this differentiation seems of interest, particularly as there is an indication that "motivation" may be an affectively neutral condition.

Heroin transition risk among daily and non-daily cannabis users who are non-injectors of heroin

Aims Non-injecting heroin use (NIU) has been identified as a potential precursor for the transition to injecting drug use (IDU). This paper examines and compares heroin transition risks between two groups of Mexican American cannabis users (daily (DU) vs. non-daily (NDU)) who are NIUs. Methods Data for this analysis are from structured interviews with 300 street-based recruited male and female NIUs in San Antonio, Texas using an adaptive sampling methodology. Three variables (being a former injector, daily heroin use, and being dependent on heroin) were used to create a summative scale measuring heroin transition risk and dichotomized into “no attributes” and “1–3 attributes”. Results Initial univariate logistic regression analysis indicated an association between heroin transition risk and the cannabis user groups with three fourths of the NDU having transition risk attributes. In the multivariate model, three factors were found to be independently associated with heroin transition risk. Heroin transition risk was positively associated with having used heroin for a longer period of time. An inverse relationship was found with DU of cannabis and those reporting alcohol use in the past month being less likely to be associated with heroin transition risks. Conclusions Findings tentatively indicate that DU of cannabis may be interpreted as a form of self-regulation and potentially deterring problematic heroin use among Mexican American NIUs and possibly other polydrug users in similar social environments. However, the authors discuss alternative interpretations of these findings. Nevertheless, findings may be used to inform specific policies and intervention strategies to prevent transitions to injecting and other harmful health consequences among NIUs.

Practitioners' perceptions of marketing: Field evidence from a Nordic country

Practitioners look upon marketing as a multidimensional tool. A questionnaire sent to Norwegian fishing and furniture industry marketers identified four factors (summated scales) based on 14 ‘marketing concept’ items from the study. ‘Reciprocity (Core)’ was the only significant variable (summated scale) in a regression model explaining variations in business performance. ‘Reciprocity (Core)’ was not perceived as being particularly representative for marketing, suggesting that practitioners should perhaps rethink their perceptions of marketing, or at least the importance they attach to various marketing processes. The study also showed that profitability was neatly woven into practitioners' perceptions of the various dimensions (factors) of marketing, a finding that has implications both for the business world and for academia.

Does subjective well-being show a relationship between parents and their children?

The relationship between the subjective well-being of parents and their own 12–16-year-old children was explored in a Spanish sample of N = 266 families. A positive relationship was expected due to both a shared environment and the possibility of the genetic transmission of subjective well-being ‘set-points’. A positive significant relationship was found for the summated scale of satisfaction domains forming the Personal Well-being Index, and for the specific domains of health and security for the future. However, no relationship was found for the other five domains that make up this Index or for satisfaction with life as a whole. We conclude while these results provide some evidence for the expected influence of a shared environment, they have failed to provide evidence for high heritability of set-points for subjective well-being.

Coefficient Beta and Hierarchical Item Clustering

Summated scales are widely used in management research to measure constructs such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. This article suggests that Revelle’s (1979) coefficient beta, implemented in Revelle’s (1978) ICLUST item-clustering procedure, should be used in conjunction with Cronbach’s coefficient alpha measure of internal consistency as criteria for judging the dimensionality and internal homogeneity of summated scales. The approach is demonstrated using ICLUST reanalyses of sample responses to Warr’s (1990) affective well-being scale and O’Brien, Dowling, and Kabanoff’s (1978) job satisfaction scale. Coefficient beta and item clustering are shown to more clearly identify the homogeneity and internal dimensional structure of summated scale constructs than do traditional principal components analyses. Given these benefits, Revelle’s approach is a viable alternative methodology for scale construction in management, organizational, and cross-cultural contexts, especially when researchers need to make defensible choices between using whole scales or subscales.

The Correlation of Colonoscopy Preparation Grading Scales

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to identify a simplified means of scoring bowel preparation quality by way of comparing four different bowel preparation grading scales. Methods: 310 patients were prospectively enrolled in a study to determine the adequacy of colonoscopy preparation using 4 different grading scales/ questionnaires. The first questionnaire (Q1) evaluated the prep in relation to the remnant stool in the colon. The second (Q2) evaluated the prep in relation to potential lesions missed on colonoscopy. The third (Q3) evaluated the aspiration ability of the remnant stool. The fourth (Q4) evaluated the colon in relation to the visualization of the underlying colonic mucosa. Each questionnaire could be answered on a four point ordinal scale with a short phrase anchoring each response option. Pairwise correlations between the items were estimated and Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha was calculated to judge the internal consistency of the items when combined into a single summated scale. Results: A Coefficient Alpha of 0.70 has traditionally been regarded as a minimally acceptable value for significance. In this study, alpha for the four items was 0.97 indicating a high degree in internal consistency. The inter- item correlations were all statistically significant (p < 0.001) and all greater than 0.88 in magnitude. Conclusions: The four items comprise a highly reliable scale, but the inter- item correlations are sufficiently high as to suggest that the four questionnaires are redundant rather than individually informative. Thus, it may be the case that a single questionnaire is sufficient for judging the quality of the prep. If such scales can be compared in a similar manner to a reliable and validated colonoscopy preparation grading scale, the task of grading colonoscopy preparation could be simplified. This will be the subject of future research.

Dimensionality of the Beck Youth Inventories With Child Psychiatric Outpatients

The Anxiety, Depression, Anger, Disruptive Behavior, and Self-Concept Inventories of the Beck Youth Inventories of Emotional and Social Impairment (J. S. Beck, A. S. Beck, & J. Jolly, 2001) were administered to 150 female and 150 male outpatients who were 7–12 years old and matched by sex as to whether they were diagnosed with anxiety, mood, adjustment, or attention-deficit and disruptive behavior disorders to determine whether each inventory represented distinct symptom dimensions. Horn’s parallel analyses (J. L. Horn, 1965) found that the Anxiety, Depression, and Disruptive Behavior Inventories were unidimensional, but that the Anger and Self-Concept Inventories were each composed of two underlying dimensions. Iterated principal-factor analyses indicated that the Anger Inventory represented Affective and Cognitive dimensions, whereas the Self-concept Inventory reflected Self-Esteem and Competency dimensions. However, the overall pattern of results was discussed as supporting the current practice of scoring each inventory as a summative scale for clinical assessment purposes.

Development of the Revised Final Version of the Quality of Life of Japanese School Aged Children with Asthma Questionnaire: The Characteristics of the Low QOL Scoring Group and Development of an Evaluation Form

A self-recorded instrument for children with asthma needed to be developed to measure their quality of life (QOL). Therefore, the JSCA-QOL questionnaire was revised into a briefer third version, consisting of 5 domains (25 questions) and a summative scale. The purpose was to examine the possibility of identifying children with poor QOL requiring medical or social support, and to devise a practical form of evaluating a nationwide investigation using this instrument. Doctors at hospital and clinics throughout Japan distributed the JSCA-QOL to 5308 10- to 18-year-old children with asthma. The questionnaires were returned by mail, after having been filled out by the subjects, who authorized their participation in the investigation by signing the questionnaire. A total of 2097 children with asthma, who fully completed the questionnaire, were included in the study. As a result of analysis, it was clear that the characteristics of the low score group (under the 10th percentile of QOL scores) were noticeably different from those of the other groups, in the following ways: (i) many children had moderate to severe asthma, (ii) the answers showed different distributions from those of the other groups, (iii) the answers in most “feeling level” questions showed a significantly different distribution. A radar chart was developed for efficient evaluation of children's QOL profiles. It was very useful to separate the low score group (LSG) with the 10th percentile of the QOL score to distinguish the children who needed special support. The evaluation of the QOL profile was simplified by using the radar chart concept.

Creating parsimony at the expense of precision? Conceptual and applied issues of aggregating belief-based constructs in physical activity research.

The aggregation of measured social cognitive beliefs to form scales is a common procedure in physical activity research. In this paper, we propose that specific beliefs may actually have unique associations with physical activity, which are obscured by the practice of aggregation. Further, we point out that beliefs may be related in a more complex manner than the theory behind scale aggregation. Both of these factors are interpreted in terms of limiting physical activity intervention efforts. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine alternatives to summative scales of physical activity beliefs using structural equation modeling. Demonstrations were performed using belief-based constructs of self-efficacy, pros and cons with a large Canadian random sample (N = 683) over three, 6-month time points. Results demonstrated that items of belief-based scales are multidimensional and that a correlated belief structure fit the observed data better (P < 0.05) and explained more variance in vigorous physical activity (an additional 6-7%) than aggregated scales. Finally, a causally ordered structure among beliefs was supported, suggesting that items within a scale may be linked causally rather than as indicators of a higher-order latent variable. Implications for future research and physical activity interventions are discussed.

Shoulder magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities, wheelchair propulsion, and gender

Boninger ML, Dicianno BE, Cooper RA, Towers JD, Koontz AM, Souza AL. Shoulder magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities, wheelchair propulsion, and gender. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84:1615–20. Objective To investigate the relationship between pushrim forces and the progression of shoulder injuries in manual wheelchair users. Design Longitudinal case series. Setting Biomechanics laboratory and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) facility at a Veterans Health Administration medical center and university hospital, respectively. Participants Fourteen individuals with spinal cord injury (8 men, 6 women) who used manual wheelchairs. Intervention Subjects propelled their own wheelchairs on a dynamometer at 0.9 and 1.8m/s. Bilateral biomechanical data were obtained by using force and moment sensing pushrims at time 1. Bilateral shoulder MR images were also completed on 2 occasions, at time 1 and, approximately 2 years later, at time 2. Main outcome measures The peak pushrim forces in a pushrim coordinate system were calculated, weight normalized and averaged over 5 strokes (presented as % body weight). MRI abnormalities were graded by using a summated scale. Differences between scores between times 1 and 2 were calculated. Results Subjects were divided into 2 groups based on change in MRI score. Seven subjects were in the group with worsening scores (MRI+; mean, 8.14 points; range, 5–16), and 7 were in the group with improving or unchanging scores (MRI−; mean, −1.00 point; range, −5 to 1). There was no significant difference between groups with respect to age, body mass index, or years from injury. There were significantly more women in the MRI+ group (6 women, 1 man) than in the MRI− group (7 men) ( P=.001). The MRI+ group used significantly greater weight-normalized radial force, or force directed toward the axle at time 1, to propel their wheelchairs at each speed ( P<.01): MRI+ at 0.9m/s (mean radial force ± standard deviation, 5.2%±1.0%) and MRI− at 0.9m/s (mean radial force, 3.2%±1.7%) ( P=.028); and MRI+ at 1.8m/s (mean radial force, 6.6%±1.2%) ( P=.023) and MRI− at 1.8m/s (mean radial force, 4.1%±2.2%). In a separate analysis, women were found to propel with a significantly higher radial force. A logistic regression found a significant relationship between radial force at time 1 and increased risk of progression of MRI findings over time. Conclusion Individuals who propel with a greater percentage of force directed toward the axle were at increased risk of progression of MRI findings over time. Most people in this group were women. Clinicians should instruct wheelchair users in effective propulsion techniques and should pay particular attention to women who use wheelchairs. Reducing forces during wheelchair propulsion may minimize the likelihood of developing shoulder injuries.

The responsiveness of headache impact scales scored using 'classical' and 'modern' psychometric methods: a re-analysis of three clinical trials.

While item response theory (IRT) offers many theoretical advantages over classical test theory in the construction and scoring of patient based measures of health few studies compare scales constructed from both methodologies head to head. Compare the responsiveness to treatment of migraine specific scales scored using summated rating scale methods vs. IRT methods. The data came from three clinical studies of migraine treatment that used the Migraine Specific Quality of Life Questionnaire (MSQ). Five methods of quantifying responsiveness were used to evaluate and compare changes from pre- to post-treatment in MSQ scales scored using Likert and IRT scaling methods. Changes in all MSQ scale scores from pre- to post-treatment were highly significant in all three studies. A single index scored from the MSQ using IRT methods was determined to be more responsive than any one of the MSQ subscales across the five methods used to quantify responsiveness. Across 13 of the 15 tests (5 responsiveness methods * 3 studies) conducted, the single index scored from the MSQ using IRT methods was the most responsive measure. IRT methods increased the responsiveness of the MSQ to the treatment of migraine. The results agree with the psychometric evidence that suggest that it is feasible to score a single index from the MSQ using IRT methods. This approach warrants further testing with other measures of migraine impact.

Impact of insomnia on future functioning of adolescents

Objective: To examine the impact of insomnia among adolescents on somatic, interpersonal, and psychological functioning using data from a two-wave, prospective study. Methods: Subjects were adolescents 11–17 years of age sampled from managed care enrollment rosters in the United States. The baseline sample was 4175 and the follow-up sample a year later was 3136. Data were collected using computer-assisted personal interviews and self-administered questionnaires. Insomnia was measured using DSM-IV symptom criteria, scored as a summated scale and as separate symptoms. Indicators of somatic functioning were perceived health, limitations due to health problems, and impact of illness on family activities. Indicators of interpersonal functioning were social support, relations with parents, relations with peers and relations at school. Indicators of psychological functioning were self-esteem, perceived mental health, life satisfaction, and depression. Results: Symptoms of insomnia were common, with 17% reporting nonrestorative sleep, 6% difficulty initiating sleep, 7% daytime fatigue, and 5% daytime sleepiness almost every day. Without adjustment for insomnia at follow-up, the odds of dysfunction at follow-up for those with insomnia averaged 2.5 across 11 indicators of functioning. For 9 of 11 indicators, there was a clear dose–response relation such that moderate levels of insomnia increased risk and this risk increased with greater insomnia. Adjusting for insomnia at follow-up eliminated the association with somatic functioning and attenuated associations with interpersonal and psychological functioning. Discussion: These prospective data provide additional evidence that insomnia can have adverse consequences for the functioning of adolescents. Given the growing evidence for a relation between disturbed sleep and impaired adolescent functioning, more attention needs to be directed to identifying causal pathways and possible strategies for intervention.

Strategic type, HRM and management development in Scottish firms

A survey of management development in 87 Scottish firms is reported. Data were obtained on firms' size, strategic type, and policies and practices for both human resource management and management development. A summated scale was derived to measure firms' human resource management policies and practices and factor analysis revealed a multi-dimensional structure in this. Discriminant analysis indicated that the first principal component of this scale, which corresponded to soft HRM models, and strategic type were both significant predictors of the development-status of firms. It was concluded that management development was predominantly a matter of strategic choice on the part of senior managers but that this did not operate unrestricted by structural factors.