Pongo Abelii Research Articles

Milk microbiomes of three great ape species vary among host species and over time

In mammalian neonates, milk consumption provides nutrients, growth factors, immune molecules, and microbes. Milk microbiomes are increasingly recognized for their roles in seeding infant gut microbiomes and priming immune development. However, milk microbiome variation within and among individuals remains under investigation. We used 16S rRNA gene sequencing to investigate factors shaping milk microbiomes in three captive great ape species: Gorilla gorilla gorilla (individuals, N = 4; samples, n = 29), Pongo abelii (N = 2; n = 16), and Pongo pygmaeus (N = 1; n = 9). We demonstrate variation among host species, over lactation, and between housing facilities. In phylogenetic community composition, milk microbiomes were distinct among the three ape species. We found only a few shared, abundant bacterial taxa and suggest that they likely serve functional roles. The diversity and community composition of milk microbiomes showed gradual changes over time in gorillas and the Bornean orangutan, which was detectable with our comprehensive sampling over lactation stages (> 300-day span). In gorillas, milk microbiomes differed between housing facilities, but were similar between dams within a facility. These results support the strong influence of evolutionary history in shaping milk microbiomes, but also indicate that more proximate cues from mother, offspring, and the environment affect the distribution of rarer microbial taxa.

The curious case of great ape curiosity and how it is shaped by sociality

AbstractAlthough curiosity has huge implications for human creativity and learning, its evolutionary roots and function in animals remain poorly understood. Modern humans, who lack natural predators, thrive with curiosity, but our ancestors faced more hazardous environments that would not necessarily favor individual curiosity. Instead, being curious may have undergone selection in interaction with sociality. Our closest living relatives, the great apes (henceforth apes) have evolved facing conditions more like human ancestors and as such, can help us understand the functions of curiosity and its expression in non‐human species. In this study, we defined curiosity as a combination of behavioral traits like neophilia, exploration diversity, and prolonged interest in exploring novelty and compared it, under similar captive environments across four ape species (N = 101):Pan troglodytes,Pan paniscus,Pongo abelii,andPongo pygmaeus. Results revealed that curiosity followed a linear gradient across the four species in accordance with their sociality. We proposethe social curiosity hypothesisto explain the observed pattern, reflecting those individuals in highly social species, like bonobos and chimpanzees, regularly are accompanied by conspecifics, and thereby accustomed to an abundance of social cues, leading to inhibited curiosity when alone, compared to more solitary orangutans. As such, our study implies that ape curiosity evolved interlinked with sociality. Further, a subset of the sample (N = 46) enabled us to examine if curiosity benefits problem‐solving skills, but our data did not support such link.

Individual variation and plasticity in the infant-directed communication of orang-utan mothers.

Between-individual variation in behavioural expression, such as social responsiveness, has been shown to have important eco-evolutionary consequences. However, most comparative research on non-human primate communication has focused on species- or population-level variation, while among- and within-individual variation has been largely ignored or considered as noise. Here, we apply a behavioural reaction norm framework to repeated observations of mother–offspring interactions in wild and zoo-housed orang-utans (Pongo abelii, P. pygmaeus) to tease apart variation on the individual level from population-level and species-level differences. Our results showed that mothers not only differed in the composition of their infant-directed gestural repertoires, but also in communicative tactics, such as gestural redoings (i.e. persistence) and responsiveness to infants' requests. These differences remained after controlling for essential moderators, including species, setting, parity and infant age. Importantly, mothers differed in how they adjusted their behaviour across social contexts, making a strong case for investigating within-individual variation. Our findings highlight that partitioning behavioural variation into its within-individual, between-individual and environmental sources allows us to estimate the extent of plastic responses to the immediate environment in great ape communication.

Relationships between the hard and soft dimensions of the nose in Pan troglodytes and Homo sapiens reveal the positions of the nasal tips of Plio-Pleistocene hominids.

By identifying homogeneity in bone and soft tissue covariation patterns in living hominids, it is possible to produce facial approximation methods with interspecies compatibility. These methods may be useful for producing facial approximations of fossil hominids that are more realistic than currently possible. In this study, we conducted an interspecific comparison of the nasomaxillary region in chimpanzees and modern humans with the aim of producing a method for predicting the positions of the nasal tips of Plio-Pleistocene hominids. We addressed this aim by first collecting and performing regression analyses of linear and angular measurements of nasal cavity length and inclination in modern humans (Homo sapiens; n = 72) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes; n = 19), and then performing a set of out-of-group tests. The first test was performed on four subjects that belonged to the same genus as the training sample, i.e., Homo (n = 2) and Pan (n = 2), and the second test, which functioned as an interspecies compatibility test, was performed on Pan paniscus (n = 1), Gorilla gorilla (n = 3), Pongo pygmaeus (n = 1), Pongo abelli (n = 1), Symphalangus syndactylus (n = 3), and Papio hamadryas (n = 3). We identified statistically significant correlations in both humans and chimpanzees with slopes that displayed homogeneity of covariation. Prediction formulae combining these data were found to be compatible with humans and chimpanzees as well as all other African great apes, i.e., bonobos and gorillas. The main conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that our set of regression models for approximating the position of the nasal tip are homogenous among humans and African apes, and can thus be reasonably extended to ancestors leading to these clades.

Orangutan mothers adjust their behaviour during food solicitations in a way that likely facilitates feeding skill acquisition in their offspring

Immature orangutans acquire their feeding skills over several years, via social and independent learning. So far, it has remained uninvestigated to what extent orangutan mothers are actively involved in this learning process. From a fitness point of view, it may be adaptive for mothers to facilitate their offspring’s skill acquisition to make them reach nutritional independence faster. Food solicitations are potential means to social learning which, because of their interactive nature, allow to investigate the degree of active involvement of the mother. To investigate the role of food solicitation and the role of the mother in immatures’ foraging skill acquisition, we analysed 1390 food solicitation events between 21 immature Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) and their mothers, collected over 13 years at the Suaq Balimbing orangutan population. We found that solicitation rates decreased with increasing age of the immatures and increased with increasing processing complexity of the food item. Mothers were more likely to share complex items and showed the highest likelihoods of sharing around the age at which immatures are learning most of their feeding skills. Our results indicate that immature Sumatran orangutans use food solicitation to acquire feeding skills. Furthermore, mothers flexibly adjust their behaviour in a way that likely facilitates their offspring’s skill acquisition. We conclude that orangutan mothers have a more active role in the skill acquisition of their offspring than previously thought.

Slow loris (Nycticebus borneanus) consumption by a wild Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii).

Vertebrate predation and consumption by wild Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus spp.) is rare. In contrast to recorded observations of slow loris consumption by Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii), no cases of this have been previously published for Bornean orangutans in the wild. In 2017, we observed the capture and consumption of a slow loris (Nycticebus borneanus) by an adult unflanged male Bornean orangutan at Tuanan Orangutan Research Station, which is located in the Kapuas region of Central Kalimantan. The unflanged male was together with an adult female and her 3.5-year-old offspring throughout the event. However, despite the mother and her offspring watching the male closely and occasionally begging while he consumed the loris, he resisted all food-taking attempts. This study reports, to the best of our knowledge, the first documented case of slow loris predation and consumption by a Bornean orangutan, and thus provides an important data point for understanding primate predation on other primate species.

Spatial model of human-sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) conflict vulnerability in Besitang, Indonesia

Sumatran orangutan is one of the key species of wildlife that live in the Besitang forest landscape. Conflicts between sumatran orangutans and humans often occur along with the narrowing of sumatran orangutan habitat. The importance of knowing the distribution of locations at risk of human-wildlife conflict is expected to be used as a reference in efforts to mitigate the occurrence of human-wildlife conflict. This study aimed to get information about the vulnerability distribution of human-sumatran orangutan conflict (HSOC) based on influenced factors in Besitang. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method is used to select and weight the factors that are thought to influence the distribution of HSOC. Overlay analysis of the factors influencing HSOC distribution is done using Geographic Information System (GIS). The results of the study showed that the vulnerability of HSOC could be divided into three classes namely, the highly vulnerable areas of conflict are 35,282.16 ha (21.66), medium vulnerable areas are 55,662.57 ha (34.17%) and not vulnerable areas are 71,960.85 ha (44.17%). This research will be helpful as an early warning system in HSOC mitigation efforts.

The context of sexual coercion in orang-utans: when do male and female mating interests collide?

Sexual coercion is widespread in the animal kingdom. Its direct forms, including harassment and forced copulation, have largely been investigated as an expression of (alternative) male reproductive strategies, rather than the result of a sexual conflict between the sexes. Likewise, the frequent occurrence of forced copulations in orang-utans (Pongo spp.) has been attributed to male strategies and more recently also to concealed female fecundity. So far, however, the immediate contextual variables leading to forced copulations have rarely been examined. We compared two orang-utan populations, Suaq (Pongo abelii, Sumatra) and Tuanan (Pongo pygmaeus, Borneo), both characterized by an individual-based fission–fusion lifestyle, whereas their socioecology differs. We assessed how the occurrence of female-resisted and voluntary copulations was affected by female reproductive state, male morph (unflanged or flanged), measures of male–male competition, male–female relationship and ecological factors. Besides female reproductive state and male morph, predictors of female resistance were related to male–male competition. First, female resistance was more likely towards subordinate males who were displaced from proximity to the female by another male during that association. Second, the presence of additional flanged males increased the probability of female resistance. Third, the latency to both the arrival of another male and to the end of the association after sexual interactions was shorter if there was female resistance. We conclude that sexual coercion in orang-utans is highly dependent on the vicinity of more dominant males and can only be understood in the light of sexual conflict: While males force copulations when at risk of losing access to a female and thus follow a ‘now-or-never’ strategy, female resistance follows a ‘not-you-now’ pattern, which is ultimately consistent with an infanticide avoidance strategy.

Primate Selfies and Anthropozoonotic Diseases: Lack of Rule Compliance and Poor Risk Perception Threatens Orangutans

Our understanding of the transmission of anthropozoonotic diseases between humans and non-human primates, particularly great apes due to their close genetic relationship with humans, highlights a serious potential threat to the survival of these species. This is particularly the case at tourism sites where risk of disease transmission is increased. We focus on the interaction between tourists and the Critically Endangered Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) at Bukit Lawang in the Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia, before and after the park was closed due to the threat of COVID-19 in April 2020. Through analysis of posts on Instagram we determine the extent of compliance by visitors with the rule to keep a minimum distance of 10 m from orangutans and assess the positional behaviours of the orangutans. Of the 2,229 photographs we assessed between November 2019 and July 2020, 279 depicted one or more orangutans. Forty-two of these contained both a human and an orangutan, and of these all showed inappropriate behaviours (direct contact, feeding orangutans, close proximity <5 m) providing direct evidence of non-compliance with the 10-m distance rule. Most of these photographs additionally showed orangutans performing abnormal positional behaviours such as being low to or on the ground rather than their natural high position in the canopy; being near the ground and in close proximity to humans increases the risk of anthropozoonotic disease transmission. As expected, we found a significant decrease in number of photographs that were posted following the closure, and a decrease in the proportion of photographs that showed orangutans, or tourists feeding orangutans. Tourists do not seem to perceive that they pose risks to the orangutans and therefore increased awareness, education and enforcement of rules by all stakeholders, tourism bodies and government officials need to be actioned in order to safeguard this important population, which is crucial to the future survival of the Sumatran orangutan.

Phylogenetic classification of ten novel species belonging to the genus Bifidobacterium comprising B. phasiani sp. nov., B. pongonis sp. nov., B. saguinibicoloris sp. nov., B. colobi sp. nov., B. simiiventris sp. nov., B. santillanense sp. nov., B. miconis sp. nov., B. amazonense sp. nov., B. pluvialisilvae sp. nov., and B. miconisargentati sp. nov

Ten Bifidobacterium strains, i.e., 6T3, 64T4, 79T10, 80T4, 81T8, 82T1, 82T10, 82T18, 82T24, and 82T25, were isolated from mantled guereza (Colobus guereza), Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abeli), silvery marmoset (Mico argentatus), golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia), pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor), and common pheasant (Phaisanus colchinus). Cells are Gram-positive, non-motile, non-sporulating, facultative anaerobic, and fructose 6-phosphate phosphoketolase-positive. Phylogenetic analyses based on the core genome sequences revealed that isolated strains exhibit close phylogenetic relatedness with Bifidobacterium genus members belonging to the Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium pullorum, and Bifidobacterium tissieri phylogenetic groups. Phenotypic characterization and genotyping based on the genome sequences clearly show that these strains are distinct from each of the type strains of the so far recognized Bifidobacterium species. Thus, B. phasiani sp. nov. (6T3 = LMG 32224T = DSM 112544T), B. pongonis sp. nov. (64T4 = LMG 32281T = DSM 112547T), B. saguinibicoloris sp. nov. (79T10 = LMG 32232T = DSM 112543T), B. colobi sp. nov. (80T4 = LMG 32225T = DSM 112552T), B. simiiventris sp. nov. (81T8 = LMG 32226T = DSM 112549T), B. santillanense sp. nov. (82T1 = LMG 32284T = DSM 112550T), B. miconis sp. nov. (82T10 = LMG 32282T = DSM 112551T), B. amazonense sp. nov. (82T18 = LMG 32297T = DSM 112548T), pluvialisilvae sp. nov. (82T24 = LMG 32229T = DSM 112545T), and B. miconisargentati sp. nov. (82T25 = LMG 32283T = DSM 112546T) are proposed as novel Bifidobacterium species.

Orangutans have larger gestural repertoires in captivity than in the wild—A case of weak innovation?

SummaryWhether nonhuman species can change their communicative repertoire in response to socio-ecological environments has critical implications for communicative innovativeness prior to the emergence of human language, with its unparalleled productivity. Here, we use a comparative sample of wild and zoo-housed orangutans of two species (Pongo abelii, Pongo pygmaeus) to assess the effect of the wild-captive contrast on repertoires of gestures and facial expressions. We find that repertoires on both the individual and population levels are larger in captive than in wild settings, regardless of species, age class, or sampling effort. In the more sociable Sumatran species, dominant use of signals toward single outcomes was also higher in captive settings. We thus conclude that orangutans exposed to more sociable and terrestrial conditions evince behavioral plasticity, in that they produce additional innate or innovated signals that are highly functionally specific. These findings suggest a latent capacity for innovativeness in these apes' communicative repertoires.

Nest Characteristics of the Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii) in the Wildlife Sanctuary Soraya Station in Aceh Province, Indonesia.

Orangutans (Pongo spp.) populations used to be widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia, from Java in the south to the Southern China in the north during the Pleistocene. Their populations have declined up to 75% of their original size and are now distributed only in parts of the tropical rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra. Pongo pygmaeus, Pongo tapanuliensis and Pongo abelii are the three most representative species, in this study, here we discussed the latter. Sumatran forests are generally suffering from deforestation with rates ranging from 3.74% to 49.85% between 2000 and 2012. Thus, human wildlife conflict intensity has escalated and gained more traction. Orangutans are known as arboreal great apes and need to build nests for resting. We applied the transect line method (three transects; each 1,000 m long) at different elevations in Soraya Research Station, Gelombang Village, Sultan Daulat sub-district, Subulussalam district, and assessed the nest characteristics. The characteristics are: (1) nesting position referring to the position of nest on a tree; (2) nest successional stages defining the age and leaf decay used in constructing a nest indicated with I (new) until V (almost gone); and (3) nest density to predict the density of nest per square km. Afterwards, the identified nesting trees along the transect were further identified based on their species, and assessed based on three characteristics (the tree height, diameter and the height of a nest measured from the soil). A total of 27 nests were found, and 44% were located in transect III or at the riparian. Out of 27, four orangutans’ nests were found on Moraceae (Streblus elongatus) and Myrtaceae (Syzigium spp.), while three nests were found on Dipterocarpus sp. The tree height, tree diameter and nest height were 10 m–25 m (mean = 17.5 m; SD = ± 0.25), 10 cm–30 cm (mean = 20 cm; SD = ± 0.4) and 16 m–20 m (mean = 18 m; SD = ± 0.35), respectively. Meanwhile, nest density calculated based on the form: d = [N/ (L* 2w)], and the values obtained were 8.4, 13.45, 26.9 nests/km2 located on transect I, II and III or at the riparian. The most commonly found nest successional stages and position were stage III and position 3, respectively. This study could serve as a baseline research in primate conservation and nest characterisation could be used as guidance for any future activity planning (e.g. tree reforestation) in a particular region and the existence of various tree species diversity are indispensable for maintaining orangutan habitats’ quality.

Naïve orangutans (Pongo abelii andPongo pygmaeus) individually acquire nut-cracking using hammer tools.

Nut-cracking with hammer tools (henceforth: nut-cracking) has been argued to be one of the most complex tool-use behaviors observed in nonhuman animals. So far, only chimpanzees, capuchins, and macaques have been observed using tools to crack nuts in the wild (Boesch and Boesch,1990; Gumert et al.,2009; Mannu and Ottoni,2009). However, the learning mechanisms behind this behavior, and the extent of nut-cracking in other primate species are still unknown. The aim of this study was two-fold. First, we investigated whether another great ape species would develop nut-cracking when provided with all the tools and appropriate conditions to do so. Second, we examined the mechanisms behind the emergence of nut-cracking by testing a naïve sample. Orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus) have the second most extensive tool-use repertoire among the great apes (after chimpanzees) and show flexible problem-solving capacities. Orangutans have not been observed cracking nuts in the wild, however, perhaps because their arboreal habits provide limited opportunities for nut-cracking. Therefore, orangutans are a valid candidate species for the investigation of the development of this behavior. Four nut-cracking-naïve orangutans at Leipzig zoo (P. abelii; Mage = 16; age range = 10-19; 4F; at the time of testing) were provided with nuts and hammers but were not demonstrated the nut-cracking behavioral form. Additionally, we report data from a previously unpublished study by one of the authors (Martina Funk) with eight orangutans housed at Zürich zoo (six P. abelii and two P. pygmaeus; Mage = 14; age range = 2-30; 5F; at the time of testing) that followed a similar testing paradigm. Out of the twelve orangutans tested, at least four individuals, one from Leipzig (P. abelii) and three from Zürich (P. abeliiand P. pygmaeus), spontaneously expressed nut-cracking using wooden hammers. These results demonstrate that nut-cracking can emerge in orangutans through individual learning and certain types of non-copying social learning.

Multicomponent and multisensory communicative acts in orang-utans may serve different functions

From early infancy, human face-to-face communication is multimodal, comprising a plethora of interlinked communicative and sensory modalities. Although there is also growing evidence for this in nonhuman primates, previous research rarely disentangled production from perception of signals. Consequently, the functions of integrating articulators (i.e. production organs involved in multicomponent acts) and sensory channels (i.e. modalities involved in multisensory acts) remain poorly understood. Here, we studied close-range social interactions within and beyond mother-infant pairs of Bornean and Sumatran orang-utans living in wild and captive settings, to examine use of and responses to multicomponent and multisensory communication. From the perspective of production, results showed that multicomponent acts were used more than the respective unicomponent acts when the presumed goal did not match the dominant outcome for a specific communicative act, and were more common among non-mother-infant dyads and Sumatran orang-utans. From the perception perspective, we found that multisensory acts were more effective than the respective unisensory acts, and were used more in wild compared to captive populations. We argue that multisensory acts primarily facilitate effectiveness, whereas multicomponent acts become relevant when interaction outcomes are less predictable. These different functions underscore the importance of distinguishing between production and perception in studies of communication.

Dynamic Inconsistency in Great Apes

This paper studies the nature of temporal preferences in humans by studying their basic structure in our closest living primate relatives. We investigate whether intertemporal choices in three great ape species are dynamically consistent. We present orangutans (Pongo abelii ), bonobos (Pan paniscus) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) with several series of choices among different quantities of food available after different delays. When apes can select either a reward that is available immediately or one reward three times bigger available three minutes later, they tend to act impatiently choosing the sooner, smaller reward. They also show high within-group variability. However, when a six-minute delay is added to both alternatives, apes tend to act patiently and show a more homogeneous behavior. Additional tests with constant size or delay suggest that participants trade-off the size and delay of the rewards in a temporal horizon extended up to several minutes. These results represent the first time that dynamic inconsistency is documented in our closest living primate relatives. As such, they are consistent with the hypothesis that time-inconsistent preferences are part of our evolutionary heritage.

Abstract 256: Sequence conservation of BRCA1 intron-exon junctions

Abstract Introduction: Clinical sequencing of BRCA1 and BRCA2 exons and intron-exon boundaries reveals sequence variants of uncertain clinical significance (VUSs). Many BRCA1/2 sequence variants near intron-exon boundaries are potentially pathogenic by disrupting normal splicing patterns. However, molecular analysis of these potential effects is complicated by naturally occurring alternative splicing products. It is not yet clear which of these are required for normal gene functions. We therefore aligned intron-exon boundary sequence strings for 21 BRCA1 exons in order to 1) determine whether VUSs near intron-exon boundaries disrupt conserved sequences, and 2) determine whether sequences flanking exons involved in alternative splicing events are sufficiently conserved. Methods: Sequence strings representing intron-exon junction regions were prepared for 21 BRCA1 exons. Each string consisted of 20 bases of 5' intron, the 5'-most 20 bases of each exon, the 3'-most 20 bases of each exon, and 20 bases of the 3' intron. Strings were similarly prepared for chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), bonobo (Pan paniscus), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), orangutan (Pongo abelii), baboon (Papio anubis), and Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Each string was aligned using the MUSCLE multiple sequence alignment method. Results: Splice junction sequence conservation was from 68%-100% conserved (mean % conservation, 92.7%; median, 95%). In almost all cases, sequence differences were transitions or differing numbers of thymines in poly-T tracts. The two most divergent intron-exon junction regions flanked exons 17 and 18 (70% and 68% similar, respectively). The human exon 16-17 junction is not conserved in in gorilla, and the human exon 18-19 junction is not conserved in macaques. These differences account for the divergence among primates at these sites. Seven alternative splicing events in human BRCA1 are classified as “predominant,” and all are predicted to retain the translational reading frame. All of these alternative splicing events occur in nearly perfectly conserved splicing environments, suggesting they may occur in other species as well and possibly contribute to gene function. Seven clinically identified VUSs that fall within the human BRCA1 splice junction region are wild type base differences in other primates. c.231G&amp;gt;A from human exon 5 is seen in baboon, c.441+18C&amp;gt;T in human intron 6 is seen in orangutan, c.455T&amp;gt;C in exon 7 is seen in orangutan, c.547+7G&amp;gt;A in intron 7 is seen in macaque and baboon, and c.4097-10G&amp;gt;A, c.4097-20C&amp;gt;T, and c.4115G&amp;gt;A, all in or near exon 11, are seen in macaque, baboon, and orangutan. These observations suggest these VUSs are likely to be benign polymorphisms and not pathogenic variants. We note, however, that c.547+7G&amp;gt;A disrupts a candidate intron splicing enhancer as predicted by RegRNA 2.0 and believe this variant warrants further study. Citation Format: Talia Ishfaq, Maryam Salik, Uzma Jafry, Zaain Ahmad, James D. Fackenthal. Sequence conservation of BRCA1 intron-exon junctions [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2021; 2021 Apr 10-15 and May 17-21. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(13_Suppl):Abstract nr 256.

Insight into Codon Utilization Pattern of Tumor Suppressor Gene EPB41L3 from Different Mammalian Species Indicates Dominant Role of Selection Force.

Simple SummaryThe present study envisaged the codon usage pattern analysis of tumor suppressor gene EPB41L3 for the human, brown rat, domesticated cattle, and Sumatran orangutan. Most amino acids are coded by more than one synonymous codon, but they are used in a biased manner. The codon usage bias results from multiple factors like compositional properties, dinucleotide abundance, neutrality, parity, tRNA pool, etc. Understanding codon bias is central to fields as diverse as molecular evolution, gene expressivity, protein translation, and protein folding. This kind of studies is important to see the effects of various evolutionary forces on codon usage. The present study indicated that the selection force is dominant over other forces shaping codon usage in the envisaged organisms.Uneven codon usage within genes as well as among genomes is a usual phenomenon across organisms. It plays a significant role in the translational efficiency and evolution of a particular gene. EPB41L3 is a tumor suppressor protein-coding gene, and in the present study, the pattern of codon usage was envisaged. The full-length sequences of the EPB41L3 gene for the human, brown rat, domesticated cattle, and Sumatran orangutan available at the NCBI were retrieved and utilized to analyze CUB patterns across the selected mammalian species. Compositional properties, dinucleotide abundance, and parity analysis showed the dominance of A and G whilst RSCU analysis indicated the dominance of G/C-ending codons. The neutrality plot plotted between GC12 and GC3 to determine the variation between the mutation pressure and natural selection indicated the dominance of selection pressure (R = 0.926; p < 0.00001) over the three codon positions across the gene. The result is in concordance with the codon adaptation index analysis and the ENc-GC3 plot analysis, as well as the translational selection index (P2). Overall selection pressure is the dominant pressure acting during the evolution of the EPB41L3 gene.

Redistribution of Sumatran orangutan in the Leuser ecosystem due to dispersal constraints and climate change

Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) is one of the great apes that lives in Asia. The species’ population suffered a significant reduction due to altered habitat and climate shifting; thus, this species is critically endangered (CR) based on The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list. Nowadays, the vast majority of the species only occur in the Leuser ecosystem (LE). The population estimation of Sumatran orangutan towards ground-truthing methods still became a challenge to carry out conservation planning; therefore, the ecological niche modeling (ENM) will be a gan excellent alternative to evaluate this species’ population dynamics. Here we present the potential distribution changes of the Sumatran orangutan in the LE under mitigation and business as usual (BAU) scenarios of climate change. This study also conducted the effects of environmental constraint (i.e., deforestation and rivers) on the Sumatran orangutan’s future dispersal in LE. We collected the Sumatran orangutan occurrences data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and literature reviews of orangutan inventory in the Leuser ecosystem. The ENM and dispersal constraints have been conducted using ENMTML and MigClim R package script-codes, respectively. This study provides novel information regarding future orangutan distribution.

Great apes (Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, Pongo abelii) exploit better the information of failure than capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) when selecting tools to solve the same foraging problem.

In a previous study, chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, and capuchin monkeys faced a task that required the use of a rigid stick-like tool to displace an out-of-reach food reward, which was located outside the cage either hanging on a string (e.g., apes) or on a table (e.g., capuchins). Three unfamiliar stick-like tools were placed on a wooden platform for the subjects to choose. Testing consisted of two consecutive trials, each with the same set of tools. Previous to the test subjects learned about the rigidity of the tool either by handling the tools (manipulation), or by observing an experimenter bending and unbending them in sequence (observation); or did not receive any information since the three tools were presented lying on the platform (visual static). In the current study, we investigated whether failing to select the right type of tool in the first trial affected subjects' choices in the second trial. Results showed that when information about the tool rigidity was obtained before selection, great apes and capuchin monkeys changed options in their second choices. However, in the visual static condition, where no information about the rigidity of the tools had been provided before their selection, only great apes discarded wrong tool exemplars in their second trials benefitting from their own mistakes. In contrast, capuchin monkeys did not. We argue that lower attentional focus and lack of stimuli distinctiveness might account for capuchins monkeys' failure to benefit from their own experience. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The Multiple Sequence Alignment and Evolutionary Analysis of Angiotensin-converting Enzyme 2 Diverse Species

The sudden outbreak of new coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in Wuhan significantly influences in China, with wide attention attracted to investigate its origin, intermediate host, transmission pathway, and pathogenic mechanism. 2019-nCoV is very similar to SARS. They may use the similar receptor to recognize and attack host cell. Angiotensin-converting enzymes 2 (ACE2) is a main receptor of 2019-nCov and SARS, which interact with the surface spike glycoproteins (S proteins) of the coronaviruses. However, we still don’t know how the 2019-nCoV infected human and which species is the intermediate host. In this study we analyzed data of amino acid sequence of ACE2 and constructed phylogenetic tree. The phylogenetic tree showed ACE2 of human is highly similar to Pongo abelii and Pan troglodytes. Furthermore, our results suggest that Pongo abelii and Pan troglodytes may be another host and we must protect these animals from be infected. Our result is beneficial for a global pneumonia epidemic prevention.